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Occurrence and development of economic idea.
2. The subject and the methods of the economic theory.
Structure and functions of economic theory
In modern conditions labor employment is based on the following principles.
1. Freely elected employment.
The citizen possesses the exclusive right to dispose of the abilities to productive, to creative activity. Unemployment of citizens cannot form the basis for their attraction to administrative and other responsibility.
2. Productive employment.
Employment is meant, first of all, as the activity of citizens connected with satisfaction personal and public needs and bringing, as a rule, by him earnings, the labor income. One of the important conditions of efficiency of this activity is that work was suitable for the person.
3. Full employment.
4. Legislative regulation of employment.
Who can be related to the category occupied and to number of the unemployed? First all population of the country is subdivided into two parts:
1. Economically inactive population — inhabitants of the country who are not part of a labor. Here are included: pupils and students of day time educational institutions; pensioners (on an old age and other bases); the persons in charge of housekeeping (including carrying out care of children sick, etc.); despaired to find work; persons who do not have necessity to work (irrespective of a source of their incomes).
2. Economically active population « a cumulative labor of a society » - a part of able-bodied citizens which offers a labor for manufacture of the goods and services.
The known researcher of macroeconomic Arthur Ouken (USA) mathematically has expressed the relation between a rate of unemployment and so-called backlog — not released or irrevocably lost production. Such attitude which has received the name of Owken’s law, shows: if the actual rate of unemployment exceeds its natural level on 1 % backlog of volume of a total national product makes 2,5 %. It allows calculating the losses of production connected to unemployment.
On a recognition of the western economists, unemployment today — the central problem of the countries with the advanced market economy. Economic losses of the period of mass unemployment it is much more, rather than the losses connected, for example, with monopolization.
The system on protection of hired workers against unemployment and maintenance of their right on work includes special measures:
The first element of such system is regulation of employment. The state undertakes the following actions:
- reduces legislatively established duration of the working day and working week during mass unemployment:
— Recommends to carry out at enterprises « division of workplaces » between workers (for increase in employment);
— Ahead of schedule dismisses on pension of workers of public sector of economy, which did not reach up to pension 2-3 years;
— Creates new workplaces and organizes public works (in the field of an infrastructure — for construction of high-quality roads, etc.), it is especial for chronically unemployed and youth;
— Reduces the offer of a labor on a labor market: limits immigration (entrance to the country) wishing to work and stimulates repatriation (homecoming) foreign workers, etc.
As other element of system of social shock-absorbers the labor exchanges created even in first half XIX century serve.
Labor exchanges — establishments which mediate between businessmen and workers at labor hiring. In modern conditions these establishments are, as a rule, state. They are engaged in the account and employment of the unemployed, promote wishing to change a job, study a condition of the market of a labor and give the information on it, and help vocational counseling of youth.
The following elements of system of economic safety of workers are funds of insurance on the unemployment, rendering lost work material aid. These funds are formed appreciably due to deductions of wages working. In connection with many restrictions by funds of insurance on unemployment can use less half of unemployed. The integral feature of market economy is unemployment — temporary unemployment of economically active population. The reasons of the given phenomenon, it is possible to formulate its basic forms.
Types and kinds of unemployment. A level of a parameter of unemployment.
Frictional unemployment (from English, friction - friction, a disagreement) is connected to moving people from one work on another, from one district in another. The reason of the given form of unemployment in that, as people, and workplaces are non-uniform, and consequently certain time for «mutual search «is required.
Structural unemployment as already it was earlier marked is connected to changes in technologies, and also that the commodity market and services constantly changes: there are new goods which supersede old, not best-selling. In this connection the enterprises reconsider structure of the resources and, in particular, resources of work. As a rule, introduction new results technologies or in dismissal of a part of a labor, or to conversion training the personnel.
Seasonal unemployment is connected to the unequal volumes of manufacture which are carried out by some branches during the various periods of time, that is in one months the labor demand in these branches grows (and, hence, is reduced unemployment), in others - decreases (and unemployment grows) (an agriculture and construction).
Cyclic unemployment is connected to insufficient cumulative demand for the goods and services which causes growth of unemployment in those branches where these goods are made.
The latent unemployment which is characteristic for domestic economy. Its essence that in conditions of incomplete use of resources of the enterprise caused by an economic crisis, the enterprises do not dismiss workers, and translate them or on the reduced mode working hours (the incomplete working week or the working day), or send in the compelled outstanding holidays. Formally such workers cannot be recognized as the unemployed, however actually they are those.
One of functions of the state becomes regulation of employment, elimination of negative consequences of unemployment. In particular, in each city or area the centers of employment which carry out the following functions are created: pay unemployment benefits, help the unemployed to find work, conduct conversion training to new, best-selling trades. In these centers there is also a psychological help to people which have stayed without work. The state besides can render financial support to those enterprises where mass dismissal is planned, with the purpose of preservation or modernization of workplaces. Further, the state can enter tax privileges for those enterprises which employ the least protected groups of the population (invalids, having many children mothers, "Afghans").
Inflation: essence, the reasons and types.
Inflation is destructive for market economy. As it is expressed in the general increase of a level of all prices it has the following negative consequences.
First of all, depreciate money. The established proportions between the prices of the goods are broken. To the seller and the buyer all becomes more complex to make the optimum economic decision. It is even more difficult to give the economic forecast and long-term calculations. There is a risk at large investment. Protection against such risk is seen in increase in the sizes of the profit and percent that conducts to the even greater rise in prices.
In a word, inflation, disorganizing market processes, "explosion" and manufacture, and consumption, strengthening social intensity in a society.
Distinguish the "open" and "suppressed" inflation.
Open inflation is inherent in the countries with market economy where free interaction of a supply and demand promotes open, anything to not constrained rise in prices as a result of falling purchasing capacity of monetary unit.
The suppressed inflation is inherent in economy with the administrative control over the prices and incomes. It therefore refers to "suppressed", that the rigid control over the prices and incomes does not allow, openly to be shown inflation in is unique to the form accessible to it - in growth of money prices.
Differently, the suppressed inflation is the "forbidden" inflation. Thus, at the suppressed inflation only the part of bank notes is money whereas another, non-provided good the part immediately turns in false money, (it does not occur at open inflation for growth of money prices takes into account size of all monetary weight including "inflationary").
The suppressed inflation is incurable - it can "be anesthetized" only, having tired out even more deeply, not allowing to be shown, and that "blowing up" already all economy. And to achieve it is possible only administrative methods. In result economy original accident expects. The matter is that suppression of inflation during decades so deforms the prices, that real economic processes simply are not realized, the society lives self-deception and is accustomed to it.
Open inflation is curable - and it is treated by economic methods. Moreover, becomes clear, in what measure it is necessary to lift incomes of needy layers of the population, and also workers of budgetary sphere.
The economic theory managed to open the mechanism generating inflation (which it is practically inherent in all countries of the world).
The first reason will be, that modern monetary circulation is carried out by the "paper" signs interrupted any connection with gold. During an epoch of «gold money» their surplus was overcome by "leaving" of gold from sphere of the reference in sphere of accumulation. And paper money which is only means of the reference to save, similarly to gold, senselessly. But, in distinct from gold money, paper simply there is no place to leave: sphere of the reference - their unique monastery.
Moreover, there is «a closed inflationary run ": the rise in prices demands for the reference still a lot of bank notes, and their new portion conducts to a new rise in prices, again demanding growth of monetary weight.
Thus, the first reason of inflation - in the "paper" nature of modern monetary circulation as the terminator of issue of paper money as the size of their gold maintenance determined by the law is removed.
The second reason is a constant growth of charges of the civilized state on financing of national economic and social programs (defensive system, the help the unemployed, support needy, expenses for a science, education, ecology, etc.).
Both reasons of inflation named above are united under the name «inflation of demand ", since. These - requirement for additional money on the part of demand, buyers.
The third reason of inflation - demand for money on the part of manufacturers (therefore it has received the name «inflation of costs "). The matter is that in structure of charges of postindustrial manufacture the basic place is occupied with "salary", and the society, the above its size is more civilized. The rise in prices on the goods starts to untwist a spiral «the prices - the salary "; the above the prices the are higher the salary, and the above the salary should, the production costs (and are higher than the price of the industrial goods). In this sense also speak about «inflation of costs ".
Social and economic consequences of inflation and means of struggle against inflation.
Till 30th of our century inflation unequivocally was considered as the negative phenomenon. However in 30th the market economy has tested the strongest shock as «Great depression ".
Became obvious, that the classical approach recognizing only self-regulation of market economy is already obsolete. It was required just таки regulation of market economy by means of the state intervention. Thus it should be indirect.
Such tool of indirect intervention of the state in market economy also is developed in the theory of outstanding English economist Dzh. M.Keynes (for this reason 30th became the period of triumphal procession of Keynesians on all Western world).
Keynes also became the founder, the concept "rehabilitating" inflation. It has been started to be examine as such negative phenomenon which, at skilful to the directed financial policy, is capable all to give a positive pulse to all economy. It Keynes has made original revolution in views of economists, having created the concept according to which the active financial policy of the state stimulating demand during depression, is capable to provide growth of manufacture and to lower mass unemployment.
The sense of reasoning of Keynes has consisted in the following. Additional monetary issue means growth of solvent demand of the population. In turn, such growth should be stimulus for increase in the offer of the goods. There will be it because in a pursuit of money of buyers manufacturers will expand volume of manufacture and with that will provide a commodity covering increased (as a result of additional monetary issue) solvent demand.
The resulted theoretical reasoning was transformed to the economic policy which has received the name «controllable inflation ".
However the reality appeared more strongly the theory: excess of solvent demand over the commodity offer has led to an ordinary rise in prices. The manufacturer has preferred to be directed on easier way: instead of increase in the offer he began "to choose" inflationary surplus of bank notes at the buyer simple increase of the price. Failure of attempt to supervise inflation has been predetermined also by that many секторы market economy were actually монополизированы, and Keynesianism the approach assumed the free competitive market.
To everyone who is engaged in economy and thirsts it to improve, it is necessary to remember for ever - the manufacturer has only two ways of increase of the income:
- Due to growth of the price (at constant production costs),
- Due to reduction of production costs (at a constant price).
From these two ways idle times and easy - increase of a sale price of the goods and attempt to impose to it to buyer. And until the first way is accessible, there is no such force which would force the manufacturer to engage in reduction of production costs and increase in its volume. Only when the manufacturer will be convinced, that the further growth of the price is impossible, he will engage in manufacture and its costs (and if not is a monopolist).
Since 60th there has come an epoch of monetarism - concepts which considers, that stability of market economy in the deciding image depends on regulation of the monetary weight which are taking place in circulation. Practice of monetarism will consist in carrying out of measures, opposite Keynesian «recipes": restriction of the State expenditure and growth of monetary weight. If Keynesian approach meant stimulation of demand (in hope thus to cause "chain reaction" as growth of the offer) the monetarism, on the contrary, stimulates the offer which consequence should become growth of demand. From "demand" - to "offer": the sense of transition from Keynesian treatments of inflation to monetary is those.
Monetarists offer the following anti-inflationary measures:
- direct stimulation of business (decrease) in taxes on investing profit),
- Reduction of the State expenditure,
- stimulation of a gain investing savings (accommodation by the population of the savings in banks or securities).
Monetary policy) - tough policy, it demands hardness and is indifferent to demagogy and a hysteria. As against Keynesianism, the monetarism in practice has proved the efficiency.
The powerful inflationary factor appears also huge volume of the uncompleted construction because and in this case "inflationary" (empty) money is distributed.
In an inflationary direction the monopolies of the largest enterprises operates also, allowing to establish is artificial the overestimated prices. At last, «generality of work «in practice always turns around the latent unemployment, so, also delivery of unearned money.
The constancy of "clever" behavior of the buyer installs inflationary expectations and in the seller, with that only a difference that he will operate in an opposite direction: if it is favorable to consumer to buy today (while the prices have not risen even above) it is more favorable to manufacturer to sell tomorrow (when the prices will really rise). In a result the same inflationary expectations, forcing the buyer to try to discover the goods, and sellers to hide it, are capable to blow up literally economy, having opposed a supply and demand. And to bridle adaptive inflationary expectations of buyers and sellers - as special source of the expanded reproduction of inflation - it is at times more difficult, than to solve many "only economic problems.
Theme № 8 Equation and economic growth.
1. Economic growth:
а) Concept, measurement, parameters;
b) Factors;
c) Types, sources;
d) State regulation of economic growth.
Requirements of a society grow and change in a qualitative sense. They grow first of all the population grows. For the modern person it is already not enough to eat, drink, put on, have only dwelling though also requirements to such blessings grow; today the person in the advanced countries requires modern means of transportation, dialogue, services on maintenance and strengthening of health, education and vocational training, in high-grade and substantial rest, etc. These objective processes proceeding in a life of a society, a science unites in «the LAW of the EMINENCE of REQUIREMENTS ".
Economic growth in scale of all social production is submitted by increase in annual volume of manufacture of the goods and services. Therefore a parameter with the help of which economic growth is measured, the total national product (GNP) usually acts - Besides for the same purposes changes of a total internal product (gross national product) is used. Thus only real GNP (or gross national product) changes are accepted in calculation. The increase in GNP for the account of higher prices of the current period cannot be considered as economic growth.
Economic growth is accepted to measure both in absolute sizes, and in relative (in percentage to size of the previous period).
Real GNP can increase, but it also can decrease. Zero value of compared sizes of GNP means absence of changes in movement of GNP, hence, absence of economic growth.
For the certain time interval economic growth is measured by «annual rates of growth ". To define annual rate of growth of GNP, it is necessary to deduct size of real GNP of the last year and the received difference from size of real GNP of the given year to correlate with size of real GNP previous (i.e. compared) year, having expressed result in percentage. Building the parameters describing rates of growth of GNP for a number of years, it is possible to reveal the tendency, i.e. a direction of economic development. In a combination to other macroeconomic parameters such information forms a basis of the economic analysis necessary for manufacture and decision-making at the state level, and also for check and the control of efficiency of economic policy of the government.
For measurement of economic growth, especial by comparison at the international level, such parameter, as «size of GNP per capita» (and rates of its growth) is also widely used. These parameters are usually used for the characteristic of a standard of living and dynamics of well-being of the population of this or that country.
How GNP is used is also not less important: if all its increasing share is consumed unproductively (for example, goes on development of a military-industrial complex), the less its share acting in direct consumption of the population. Derivation of a significant part of GNP reduces opportunities of development of manufacture (by needs of a war industry or the contents of machinery of state) according to its natural purpose.
At identical volume of a real national product its size, falling I oppress the population, will depend on a population of the given country. So, GNP of India almost on 70 % surpasses GNP of Switzerland, however on a share of it, falling I oppress the population, India lags behind Switzerland more than in 60 times! Therefore, if change of GNP is used as the generalized parameter of a standard of life, it is necessary to take into account the changes occurring in a population. For example, if real GNP for a year has increased for 1,5 %, but the aggregate number of the population for this period has grown on 1,5 % too on the average a standard of living of the population of any changes will not take place.
Two types of economic growth are distinguished - "EXTENSIVE" and "INTENSIVE",
The extensive increase in manufacture of the goods and services occurs due to attraction of additional factors of manufacture - the grounds, work and the capital, thus their qualitative and technical levels remain constant.
But, as we remember, resources of a society, including labor, are not boundless. Therefore it is more preferable INTENSIVE type of economic growth at which the increase in the made blessings is reached due to growth of labor productivity on improved technical base and more an effective utilization of all factors of manufacture. In this case before a society opens the opportunity alongside with increase in quantity and quality of the made blessings simultaneously to solve diverse tasks - to provide growth of well-being of members of a society, to create a material basis of the future development of manufacture, it is more than means to put in development of a science and culture, preservation of the environment, to support up to the mark defensibility of the country. ADVANTAGES of INTENSIVE TYPE of ECONOMIC GROWTH will consist.