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Occurrence and development of economic idea.
2. The subject and the methods of the economic theory.
Structure and functions of economic theory
Various forms of marketing planning and definition of probable kinds of activity of the enterprise are carried out at all levels of a social production in view of the time factor. The time prospect defines whether there will be a planning "strategic" or "operative".
Strategy of marketing is meant as the basic long-term plan of action of the enterprise before interaction with partners and to counteraction to competitors in the various commodity markets.
Formation of marketing strategy demands development of plans (or programs) of marketing.
The program (plan) of marketing is an estimated characteristic of those means which it is planned to use in manufacture during the certain period, thus the substantiation is given and expected results are specified.
In the integrated kind marketing planning covers the following spheres:
The Competitive structure
Selling
Theme 7: The prices in system of market relations.
National economy and its parameters.
1. The prices and the theory of pricing.
A gross national product; а gross domestic product; а standard of living and its parameters.
Free movement of the commodity prices is "market economy".
Sale and purchase of results of manufacture ("goods") – the fact of recognition behind them of public value. This value expressed in certain quantity of bank notes, is the price of the goods. As public value of the goods constantly changes, also the price of the goods is in constant movement. The direct push to the given movement gives interaction of a supply and demand.
Market transformation of domestic economy means transition from directive pricing to market, providing occurrence of system of the equilibrium prices as result of free interaction of a supply and demand.
Obviously, however, as the prices render active influence on a supply and demand. Therefore there is a temptation of the "accelerated" decision of economic problems by direct assignment of the prices. Certainly, in extreme situations, such management of the prices for short term can be justified, but to transform management of the prices in unique regulations of economy is inadmissible,
These two methods of price control also distinguish "market", “administrative" economy: in the first it is inherent mainly intermediate influence on the prices, the second – direct.
Cost is the socially - useful expenses of work embodied in the goods. As if to "price" of the goods it is term of money of its cost. The price of the separate goods can deviate its cost under influence, casual market factors, including inflations.
Wholesale prices are the prices, in the relation with which the state enterprises and the organizations realize industrial them production to all categories of buyers. Working wholesale prices are commissioned since January, 1 1991. Are subdivided into wholesale prices the enterprise and wholesale prices of the industry.
Wholesale prices of the industry exceed wholesale prices of the enterprises for the sum of costs and the normative profit marketing the organizations, and as on size of the tax from a revolution. Wholesale prices are subdivided on fixed (list), adjustable (limited by a marginal level of profitability) and the contractual (free) prices adjustable by a supply and demand of the consumer market.
Retail prices - the price for the goods and the services, sold to the population through the enterprises of the state and cooperative trade and public catering. Functions and system of price.
In market economy the price carries out three functions.
First, it gives the information focusing actions of buyers and sellers.
Second, stimulates the most economic way of manufacture and the most rational behavior of demand.
And, thirdly, through the price there is a main thing in market economy - distribution of incomes between its participants.
Performance of these functions demands to provide the prices free movement. And such freedom is achievable only at absence of inflation and the monopolies, the prices deforming original dynamics. That is why the major task of regulation of market economy is struggle against inflation and monopolies.
Though the system of the prices is very complex, all prices can be reduced to three basic kinds - "contractual", "state" and "world".
Contractual prices are originally market, the free prices embodying freedom of business. They are established by the agreement of the buyer and the seller, i.e. take into account only a supply and demand on the given goods. Lack of contractual prices is that they can be speculatively overestimated (or are underestimated) and to break an equilibrium condition of the market. Densities of contractual prices define a degree "market" economy of the given country.
Suppressed inflation is inherent in economy with the administrative control over the prices and incomes. It therefore refers to "suppressed"; that the rigid control over the prices and incomes does not allow to be shown openly inflations in is unique to the form accessible to it - in growth of money prices "market" economy of the given country.
State-set prices in market economy are established on:
1) Production of enterprises - monopolists;
2) Base (for economy of the given country) resources;
3) The social - significant goods.
The system of state-set prices will consist of two elements: the fixed prices rigidly established by the government, and the controlled prices which are taking into account changes of an economic conjuncture.
The prices on which the largest are made are export - import transactions are considered as "World price". These prices always pay off in hard currency.
The world price can deviate under influence of two factors: conditions of transportation of the given goods and volume of purchase (the "wholesale" and "retail" price).
Concept about national economy: structure of national economy: System of macroeconomic proportions.
The modern science about socially - adjustable market economy was created on an extent more than a half century in two stages.
First (last third XIX century) the theory explaining behavior of the market subject ("firm" and "housekeeping") was generated within the framework of the local market. It had been outlined sphere of private business - a base level and a mass social basis of market economy.
Occurrence of micro-economics and the microeconomic theory studying it marked a quantum leap in development of an economic science; the micro-economics have reduced behavior of individual manufacturers and consumers to rational market logic of action of the buyer and the seller - to aspiration of achievement of the maximal pure benefit. The economic science has interrupted with it the appeal to abstract virtues of the abstract person and has come, at last, to the terrestrial person with his prosaic desire of extraction of benefit.
At the same time occurrence of the microeconomic theory becoming the concept of a market explanation of economy as set local, of the micro markets, has generated also deep crisis in an economic science. The matter is that the market methodology of the microeconomic theory was not coordinated with out market methodology of the analysis common economic processes. The principle of systematic demanded that and «the economy as a whole «has received market treatment. This task was solved by outstanding English economist John M.Keynes who in 30th years of our century has put in pawn bases of the macroeconomic theory. The theory explaining to law of movement of economy as the macro market.
The macroeconomic theory - the most complex and, at the same time, the important section of an economic science. The knowledge macroeconomic, models also is in a broad sense economic culture, economic education. Within the framework of the economic theory the macroeconomic is represented by set of the integrated ("aggregated") economic parameters.
It is necessary to recognize, that today strict differentiation on macrо - and micro-economics does not exist any more - we notice their original "diffusion". Nevertheless, it is possible to list problems which traditionally concern to macroeconomic:
1) A problem of employment;
2) Size of the made national income;
3) Dynamics of a business cycle;
4) The nature of inflation;
5) The world economy;
6) Economic growth.
The market economy can be only system of the market. From set of the markets Keynes has allocated four basic - «the market of the blessings « (goods), "labor market", » the market of money " and "securities market". Each of these markets occupies. In structure of macroeconomic the special place also carries out special functions. The interrelation between these markets, forming the mechanism of movement of macroeconomic, also is reflected in all macroeconomic models.
Market models are subdivided on "static" and "dynamic".
The static model is original the "stops - staff", fixing economic process in its initial and final condition. Transition from initial in final conditions in static models is not reflected. It - a task of dynamic models in which solving the factor of time is accepted. In this aspect dynamic macroeconomic models share on "short-term", "intermediate term" and "long-term" where the characteristic of a time interval is defined on number of changing factors of manufacture. Fundamental concept of the macroeconomic theory is the category «economic balance» which has conceptual character.
Macroeconomic balance means such condition of national economy when in all markets equality of demand and the offer is simultaneously established. Movement to economic balance is an aspiration to the equilibrium prices, full employment, overcoming of inflation and steady economic growth.
At the same time it is necessary to recognize, that macroeconomic balance is only " an ideal design, in a reality it is not achievable.
The basic macroeconomic parameters:
A gross national product; and gross domestic product; and standard of living and its parameters.
In each country thousand interconnected firms function. In aggregate they make a «national» facility (economy) "or" economy «as the whole in which studying the macroeconomic is engaged.
To define a condition of economy as a whole, it is necessary "to summarize" a condition of economy of each firm, each company. In the economic theory such summation refers to as "aggregation". In result obtain the data on quantity made in all a society of the goods and services, about cumulative charges and cumulative incomes of all economic subjects, about an average level of the prices, etc. In other words, aggregation allows receiving the statistics describing cumulative manufacture of a society. Therefore such parameters refer to macroeconomic.
In all countries set of such macroeconomic parameters can be named «system of national accounts ". It is an original measuring instrument of a condition of economy and a basis for development of economic policy of the state and just as on dynamics of charges and incomes heads of the companies define an economic situation of firm so on parameters of national accounts the government defines a condition of all economy.
The basic parameters of national accounts are: " a total national product " (GNP), " a total internal product " (gross national product), " a pure national product " (CHIP), " the national income " (NI), " the personal income " (PI).
The total national product (GNP) is the total volume of the final goods made during year and the services, expressed in money.
In definition of GNP each word is important. First of all, GNP is the sum, the final goods and services. Hence, is also "not final", "intermediate" which at calculation of GNP are not taken into account. Than the "final" goods differ from "not final" and why the first are taken into consideration at definition of GNP?
To understand it, we shall consider the following example. We shall assume that in a certain country one suit is annually made only. Its manufacture includes 5 stages: 1) manufacture of wool, 2) processing of wool in a yarn, 3) manufacture from a yarn of a fabric, 4) tailoring of a suit, 5) realization of a suit. We shall assume further, that production costs (that, in what manufacture at each stage manages) will make according to 10 dollars, 2 dollars, 5 dollars, 10 dollars and 8 dollars. Now we shall consider features of each operation and we shall define the elements making cost of a suit.
At the first stage the sheep is raised. To receive necessary quantity of wool from which the costume fabric will be received, 10 dollars are spent. At the second stage the manufacturer of a yarn, having bought wool for 10 dollars, transforms it into a yarn, spending thus 2 dollars. Cost of a yarn will be equaled therefore 12 dollars (10 + 2). At the third stage the manufacturer of a fabric buys a yarn for 12 dollars and processes it in a woolen fabric, spending thus 5 dollars. Therefore cost of a fabric will be equaled 17 dollars (12 + 5). At the fourth stage the tailor buys a woolen fabric for 17 dollars and starts to sew a suit. His expenses will make 10 dollars. After this stage the suit will cost 27 dollars (174-10). At last, at the fifth stage, the seller of retail trade buys from the tailor a suit for 27 dollars and suggests it buyer, thus his expenses on realization make 8 dollars. Therefore final cost of a suit will make 35 dollars (27 + 8).
In this example a "final" product is the suit, and "not final", "intermediate" - wool, a yarn, tailoring of a suit and its realization. The "Final" product is the goods which are bought for final use. The "Intermediate" product is the goods which are bought with the purpose of its further processing or resale. For this reason at calculation of GNP the end-product is used only.
Besides GNP do not include cost of products which are made inside housekeeping. For example, the member of family is a carpenter and makes necessary furniture for family. This product will not be taken into account at definition of GNP as it is made not for the market, and for itself.
All weight of production which is made by peasants and the townspeople on the personal plots for own consumption is not included also in GNP.
It is not included in GNP and cost of production made in shadow economy though it and is made for sale. But the state does not own the information on it; therefore the official statistics to take into account it is not capable.
It is important to understand, that the parameter of GNP gives only the general representation about dynamics of economic development, about a condition of a national economy as a whole, allows comparing the economic potentials of the different countries created during the certain period. For example, GNP of the country "Ç" is equal to 10 bln. dollars, and GNP of the country "é" is equal to 2 bln. dollars. It means that in the country "Ç" is made in 5 times more the goods and services, than in the country "é". But in what country is it is impossible better where above standard of life, on parameter of GNP to define. For definition of a standard of well-being of the country it is necessary to compare GNP to number of the population. If the population in the country "Ç" in 6 times more the population in the country "é", that, despite of huge break in GNP, all the same a standard of life of the population of the country "é" will be higher. Therefore during the economic analysis the parameter is defined by the relation of size of GNP to a population.
On rates of growth of GNP judge dynamics of economy. If, for example, GNP has grown on 5 %, hence, the weight of production made in a society has increased for 5 % also, behind this number the huge weight of the made goods and services disappears. The more the goods and services, the it is more, hence, and GNP.
Total internal product (gross national product) - the second parameter of system of national accounts. To understand its essence, it is necessary to give well features of structure of economy in conditions of the market.
Manufacture of cumulative weight of the goods and services in the countries of market economy is carried out, first of all, by domestic-owned firms and the companies. However it’s the certain part is made by branches of the foreign companies. In turn, the domestic companies create abroad the branches which too make and realize there production. Abundantly clearly, that production and incomes which receive branches of the foreign companies will be the property of the countries where the "parent" company operates.
At calculation of gross national product cost of the final goods and the services made only inside the country, without dependence is taken into account from the one who is their proprietor - the domestic enterprises or foreign. For this reason this parameter also refers to a total internal product.
If the payments received from abroad, will exceed payments abroad in this case the balance will be positive, and GNP - is more than gross national product. If will exceed payments abroad the balance becomes negative and gross national product more, than GNP. For example, cost of all production made by all firms (including foreign) in the given country makes 10 bln. dollars. From them left abroad as different payments of 2 bln. dollars, and from abroad receive as payments of 4 bln. dollars. Then gross national product will be equaled by 10 bln. dollars, and GNP - 12 bln. dollars (10 + 4-2). If in this example of the sum of payments abroad and from abroad to change places GNP will be less gross national product, it will be equal to 8 bln. dollars (10+2-4). Excess of gross national product over GNP testifies to a significant role of the foreign property in development of a national economy.
It is known, that industrial buildings, the equipment, the machines making one the main elements of manufacture, serve within several years. Therefore in each commodity unit the part of their cost will contain. Hence, in the proceeds received from realization will contain in the monetary form and the consumed part of cost of the equipment and machines. Annually this part is withdrawn, collects and when service life of the equipment will end, is used for purchase new.
The considered mechanism of restoration of the consumed factors of manufacture refers to as "amortization".
Completely therefore it is obvious, that to find out the valid volume of end-products which can be used for improvement of well-being! The population, it is necessary to deduct amortization from GNP, т. е, that part of cost which goes on compensation of the worn out factors of manufacture. The rest of GNP also refers to as pure national product (PNP). Differently.
National income (NI) is a cumulative income which is earned with owners of factors of manufacture: owners of work (wages of hired workers), owners of the capital (profit and percent), and owners of the ground (the ground rent).
For definition NI from PNP it is necessary to deduct indirect taxes. The last represent extra charges to the price of the goods and services (excises, the VAT, the customs, etc.) Hence,
Theme №7: Macroeconomic instability: unemployment and inflation.
As is known, the market represents space on which sellers and buyers therefore for each standard goods the equilibrium price and equilibrium volume of the offer and demand are established cooperate. The carrier of work (worker) represents the unique human person, which possesses not only the certain ability to work (the doctor, the engineer, etc.), but also whole "spectrum" of other qualities: motives of labor behavior, life experience, psycho physiological features. In this connection the concept "labor market" carries in what - that degrees abstract character.
On the other hand, and employers approach to hiring a labor not only from the point of view of requirements to a trade and qualification of the individual, but also estimating his skill to communicate, skill to work in collective, ability to conversion training, labor mobility.
It is necessary to answer, that work has not only economic value (the major production factor by means of which production of the certain quantity and quality is made), but also social as is a source of the income, defines the social status of the person in a society.
Demand for work as on any resource, is a derivative that is dependence on demand for production which is made with the help of the given kind of work. In turn, the firm, defining quantity of workers which is necessary for employing, should take into account « the price of work » (wages). And the price of work depends on its limiting productivity, that increment of output which is caused by use of an additional unit of labor (the new worker) provided that other factors of manufacture will stay constant.