The economic theory; the subject, the method. Problems and tendencies of development of the economic theory

5. Price control. The state has the right to establish the limiting prices for production of the enterprises - monopolists, and also on base for the given country industrial resources. On socially significant goods of mass demand marginal levels of retail prices (or extra charges to them), and also profitability of the enterprises making them are established.  

     

       The state budget is a list (the estimate, balance) of monetary incomes and charges of the state. The budget is the important lever of influence on a course of public reproduction and stimulation of economic growth. By change of a level of the State expenditure and the taxation of the government can adjust volume of cumulative demand. The major function of the budget – increase in volume of cumulative demand by means of the state purchases of the goods and services, including on the military purposes. The budget acts as well as the basic tool of social policy of the state. The important characteristic of the state budget is the parity of incomes and charges. Finance is a system of attitudes concerning distribution and uses of funds of money resources. The financial system of the state develops of the following parts: budgets of various levels; funds of social, property and personal insurance; currency reserves of the state; monetary funds of the enterprise, the organizations, firms, other commercial and noncommercial structures; other special monetary funds. A principle of construction of the financial system, used in the majority of the countries, — a principle of fiscal federalism.

      The financial policy of the state develops of two interconnected directions of activity of the state: in the field of the taxation and regulation of structure of the State expenditure with the purpose to influence economy (a fiscal policy) and in the field of regulation of the budget (a budgetary policy).

        The basic lever of a fiscal policy of the state is change of tax rates according to the purposes of the government.  

      "Policy" is» that concerns to the state ", "state affairs", the state activity. Therefore the monetary and credit policy ~ is special activity of the state. It consists in development and realization of system of actions with which help monetary and credit processes of the country are adjusted.

At once there is a question:  why the state interferes with monetary and credit relations? In fact it is known, that the market economy is an automatically adjusting system all elements of which are constantly under influence, supply and demand, i.e. are adjusted by laws of a supply and demand. In searches for the answer it is possible to assume, that monetary and credit relations take a special place in system of market relations. And it is valid so: without money and the credit of market economy does not exist. Monetary and credit relations - the basis of all market communications, it is special, too important relations that their functioning could be given on "payoff" to only laws requirement of a supply and demand.  

    Among methods of a monetary and credit system the most effective are «operations in the open market ". Realization of the state securities allows affecting essentially for a small time interval the cumulative monetary weight participating in circulation.

      Other methods - maneuvering reserve requirements and a discount rate -, cannot render essential influence on monetary circulation though they are used by the governments of many countries. The matter is that obligatory reserves are always and in all countries perceived by banks negatively; reserved money cease "to work", do not bring percent, and banks start to render serious counteraction to the government, forcing it to go back. With the help of a discount rate of the government affect only monetary weight which commercial banks borrow the central bank. And it, as a rule, makes 2-3 % of their credit opportunities.

      Three most widespread methods of influence on a monetary and credit system, depending on an economic conjuncture and a degree of maladjustment of a financial system, can be supplemented with a number of others. One, by virtue of their huge value for functioning a financial system, it is possible to name radical, others - functional.

      When rate of inflation annually makes thousand (sometimes tens thousand) percent and money so depreciate, that their purchasing capacity practically becomes zero, the state resorts to original «surgical operation» - carries out currency reform ("denomination"). "Old" money is withdrawn from circulation, and new is issued so much, how many it is necessary for the reference of the goods and without inflationary development.

     This extreme measure is applied in unusual cases when traditional ways of influence on a monetary and credit system do not give desirable results. Nevertheless, it is the important element of a monetary and credit policy.

          

Modern world economy. Global problems of world economic development.

1. The world market

2. The international division of labor relations

4. Free international trade

 

       Modern world social development is characterized by strengthening of communications and interactions between the countries. The tendency to association is caused by need of the decision of global problems facing to mankind, such, as threat of nuclear catastrophe, an environmental problem, public health services and space. But the deepest basis of strengthening of integrity of the world is made with increasing interdependence of the states in economic sphere. Any country of the world cannot apply for high-grade development if not it is involved in an orbit microeconomic communications.

       The international community unites the states having the national and economic originality. The basic criteria distinguishing various economic systems, opportunities of use of the advanced techniques (technical equipment) and the "know-how", and also a degree of mastering by principles of the market device of economy are.

According to the given classification attributes it is possible to allocate "industrially advanced" and» new industrial» the countries; «the highly remunerative states ", exporting raw material and energy carriers; the least advanced and poor countries of the world. Distinguish the countries with the advanced, developing market economy and also the countries with market economy. For comparison of achievements of the states the total - a total national product (GNP) counting upon soul of the population is used.     

       Microeconomic communications originate in world trade which has passed a way from individual foreign trade transactions before long-term large-scale trade and economic cooperation. Having arisen on a manufactory stage of development of a social production (XVI century), the world market was actively formed under influence of movement of the trading capital, economically and politically ratified in the majority of the European countries.

       Specificity of later steps of development of the world market is connected to the industrial revolution XVIII-XIX of centuries given the big dependence of large-scale industry from the international exchange. The closing stage of formation of the world market which concerns approximately to the end to the Х1Х-beginning of XX century, meant increase of volume of international trade, change in structure of the commodity streams resulted in a mutual interlacing of national economies.

      Segments of the world market are defined as traditional factors of manufacture - by the ground, work and the capital, and rather new - information technology and business which importance grows under influence of a modern scientific and technological revolution.

       Commodity markets and services, capitals and a labor, generated on above national level, grow out interactions of world demand, the world prices and the world offer, test on itself influence cyclic fluctuation, function in conditions of monopoly and a competition.

      The maturity microeconomic communications is defined by a parity of rates of growth of commodity circulation and production of goods. About the changes occurring in sphere of the international economic attitudes, the data on structure of barter, densities of the transactions which are carried out on a labor market and the market of the capital, dynamics of the world prices, directions of movement of the goods, services, capitals testify. The analysis of volumes of the blessings imported in the country (import) and industrial products taken out from the country, resources and the investments (export) taken in money terms, is used for drawing up of balance of charges and incomes of the state which have received the name the balance of payments.

        The important place in an explanation of laws of development of the international economic relations borrows mobility of factors of the manufacture, caused with perfection of productive forces of a society, processes of the international division of labor.

 

The international division of labor

        The world market was issued as integrity to the beginning of XX century. Up to a machine stage the international division of labor was based on the natural basis - distinctions of natural-climatic conditions of the country, a geographical position, resources and energy. Therefore and economic relations of the countries basically have been concentrated on an exchange of products which were not made in given or other countries.

       With the statement of the large machine industry the differentiation of manufacture goes deep, specialization and the cooperation leaving for national borders develops. Communication with a natural basis is shown in dependence of industrial production of the advanced countries on deliveries of mineral or agricultural raw material from those regions of the world where for this purpose there are sufficient conditions. Besides industrially the advanced countries show a growing demand for agricultural production from the outside as the significant part of the population of own country distracts from employment by agriculture and fills up a labor market for the industrial production concentrated in cities. Thus, the steady commodity exchange between the countries making an industrial output, and the states delivering a source of raw materials is established.

          Competitive struggle makes active manufacturers in search of the most economic technologies lowering expenses of raw material and energy carriers. Migration of labor amplifies; manufacture of cheaper artificial substitutes of raw material is adjusted.

      Industrialization of agriculture of the advanced countries has strengthened their self-sufficiency food stuffs. There was an expansion of trade between the advanced countries production of branches of the heavy industry.

Thus, the international division of labor has gradually captured all structural elements of a public division of labor. The exchange which is carried out at the international level, promoted also itself has grown out of a deepening of a division of labor between large spheres of economy - the industry and agriculture, between branches of these spheres, has strengthened subject, technological and detail specialization.

       The present stage of development microeconomic communications is characterized by increase of the dependence caused by translation of manufacture in advanced economic systems, on new technological base, with prevalence of information technologies. The new qualitative condition of productive forces stimulated internationalization of reproducing processes which was showed in two basic forms: integration (rapprochement, interdiction of national economy) and transnaionalizaion (creation of interethnic industrial complexes).

 

Modern lines of the international economic relations

       Integration means interosculation of separate national economy, the coordination of actions of the governments into development of the economic policy answering to interests of all parties participating in integration process, and also in relation to the third countries. Integration is provided with concentration and an interlacing of capitals.

Integration processes have regional character; get the form of the associations directed on achievement of the common economic targets. Creation of the common market is connected to liquidation of barriers between the countries not only in trade, but also at moving a labor and the capital. The supreme form of display of integration association is the economic union which assumes carrying out by states - participants of system of measures of interstate regulation of the social and economic processes proceeding in region.

       Intercountry integration has reached the greatest maturity in the European economic community (European Economic Community) created in 1957. Now in the given integration community solves problems of free movement of the goods, services and a labor. As a matter of fact the question is creation «uniform economic space. The common markets are created in Southeast Asia, the Arabian world, Africa and Central America.

       Transnaionaliztion is the interstate integration sold at a level of private concerns. The international connections of private capitals have received an organizational embodiment in activity of transnational corporations (ТNC). Transnational structures unite national economies not to a geographical attribute (a generality of borders), and on the basis of deep reproducing connections (trust, concern, the interfirm unions).

        Now the international economic relations were ratified and realized in the following basic forms:

- International trade in the goods and services;

- inter country cooperation of manufacture;

- An exchange in the field of a science and techniques (technical equipment);

- Movement of capitals and foreign investments; 

- Migration of labor;

- Currency credit relations.

       Progress in sphere of manufacture of the advanced technical and information means (for example, computers) results in their fast ageing, so, necessities of constant updating. Mass production can become effective at orientation to the branches possessing high technology. Hence, modern manufacture is guided not by national or regional scales, and on world economic space.

       The deepening of the international division of labor goes on competitive struggle. The basic argument of rivalry of the participating parties is comparison of scientific potentials and technological opportunities which the countries possess. Characteristic feature of the modern world economy is the section of technological authority. Some countries continue to remain in a vein of single-crop raw specialization.

 

Free international trade

        Free international trade - a source of growth of well-being of the nation. At the same time it is one of the most disputed spheres of economy. Interests of importers and exporters, continually fuss of cabins «trading wars «here collide (face). Besides, despite of benefits of international trade, all states various about - adjusts it. One of forms of regulation is protectionism - a policy of creation to domestic businessmen of concessionary terms of activity in comparison with foreign. Protection of national economy against an excessive impact of the import goods is carried out first of all with the help of "customs" (tariffs).

      The customs (tariff) - a payment for the benefit of the state on whish is raised at crossing border from the owner of the goods of the foreign manufacture imported in the country of day of sale. Influence of the tariff reduces a standard of well-being of consumers, but repaid for the state which size is equal to product of the rate of the tariff for volume of import assessed by it. The sum received by the state from collection of duties, can serve the various purposes subsequently: to turn to additional charges on social programs, to promote decrease in surtaxes, etc.

      From all kinds of not tariff barriers the greatest distribution «import quotas " - have received quantitative restriction of volume of the foreign production resolved to annual import in the country. The state gives out the limited quantity of the licenses resolving import, and forbids not licensed import. The import quota is more attractive to the state, than the tariff because increase of rates of the tariff is regulated by the international trading agreements and the government not always can independently raise the tariff. Easier, it appears to establish strict import quotas. Quotas, similarly to duties, reduce a competition in a home market in the certain branch. Restriction of foreign trade can concern not only import, but also export. Export barriers are "mirror" display import it is expressed that the state can give exporters low-percentage loans or tax privileges that allows firms to sell production abroad under lower price, than they could sell it in the domestic market. Sale of the same goods in the foreign market under lower prices, than, on the friend (usually domestic), or is cheaper than cost of their manufacture, refers to as "dumping". In 80th years the government the USA has accused a number of foreign firms of dumping sale of their production in the American market. Firm «Sony" sold the TVs made in Japan in the American market for 180 dollars whereas the Japanese consumers paid for same 333 dollars.

       The new forms of trading barriers are voluntary export restrictions - a quota on export of the national goods, entered by the state. Exporters of production agree to voluntary restrictions, in hope to avoid more rigid trading barriers. For example, automobile manufacturers of Japan, under threat of introduction

The United States import quotas, have agreed on voluntary restrictions of the export in the USA.