Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS

THE PHONEME

 

Separate segments of speech have no meaning of their own. They mean something only in combinations (words). In connected speech a sound is generally modified by its phonetic environment, (i.e. by the neighbouring sounds), by the position it occupies in a word or an utterance; it is also modified by prosodic features, such as stress, speech melody, and tempo of speech.

Phonetics studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units, phonology investigates sounds as units, which serve communicative purposes. Phonetics and phonology are closely connected. The unit of phonetics is a speech sound, the unit of phonology is a phoneme.

Compare /p/ in "pill"  (i.e. in initial position), in "spill" (i.e. after /s/), in "slip" (i.e. in final position), in "slipper" (i.e. between vowels, the first of which is stressed). These various /p/ sounds differ in manner of articulation and in acoustic qualities. But they do not differ phonologically, if one of the various /p/ sounds is substituted for another, the meaning of the word will not change. That is why for the English speaking people it is of no linguistic importance to discriminate the various /p/ sounds. But it is linguistically important for English speakers to discriminate between /p/ and /b/ (as in "pill" and "bill") or /p/ and /m/ (as in "pill" and "mill"), though the differences in their production might not be much more notable than the differences  in the production of the various /p/ sounds. That is why /p, b, m/ are different elements of the English sound system (different English phonemes). The substitution of one for another affects communication.

Every language has a limited number of sound types which are shared by all the speakers of the language and are linguistically important because they distinguish words in the language. In English there are 20 vowel phonemes and 24 consonant phonemes; in Russian there are 6 vowel and 35 consonant phonemes.

Phonemes can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs. This method consists in finding pairs of words which differ in one phoneme. I.e., if we replace /b/ by /f/ in the word ban we produce a new word fan, ban – tan is a pair of words distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. Two words of this kind are termed “minimal pair”. It is possible to take this process further, we can also produce can, ran, man, fan – it is a minimal set. The change of the vowel /æ/ in ban provides us with another minimal set: bun, bone, Ben, burn, boon, born. The change of the final /n/ in ban will result in a third minimal set: bad, bat, back, badge, bang.

The phonemes of the language form a system of oppositions, in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one position in at least one grammatical or lexical minimal or sub-minimal pair. If the substitution of one sound for another results in the change of meaning, the commuted sounds are different phonemes.

The founder of the phoneme theory was I.A. Baudouin de Courteney, the Russian scientist of Polish origin. His theory of phoneme was developed by L.V. Shcherba – the head of the Leningrad linguistic school, which stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of, and that in every language these sounds are united in a comparatively small number of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and the form of words. It is these sound types that should be included into the classification of phonemes and studied as differentiatory units of the language.

All the actual speech sounds are allophones (or variants) of the phonemes that exist in the language. Those that distinguish words, when opposed to one another in the same phonetic position, are realizations of different phonemes. E.g. /v/ and /w/ in English are realizations of two different phonemes because they distinguish such words as "vine" and "wine", "veal" and "wheel" etc.

Those sounds that cannot distinguish words in a definite language and occur only in certain positions or in combination with certain sounds are realizations of one and the same phoneme, its allophones (or variants). In English for example, the "dark" / l / and the "clear" /I/ are variants, or allophones of the same phoneme. Allophones are realized in concrete words. They have phonetic similarity, that is their acoustic and articulatory features have much in common, at the same time they differ in some degree and are incapable of differentiating words.

Therefore, the phoneme may be defined as the smallest linguistically relevant unit of the sound structure of a given language which serves to distinguish one word from another.

AIlophones (or variants) of a certain phoneme are speech sounds which are realizations of one and the same phoneme and which, therefore, cannot distinguish words. Their articulatory and acoustic distinctions are conditioned by their position and their phonetic environment.

The number of sound types, or phonemes, in each language is much smaller than the number of sounds actually pronounced.

Phonemic variants, or allophones, are very important for language teaching because they are pronounced in actual speech and though their mispronunciation does not always influence the meaning of the words, their misuse makes a person’s speech sound as “foreign”. 

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That variant of the phoneme which is described as the most representative and free from the influence of the neighbouring phonemes is considered to be typical, or principal. The variants used in actual speech are called subsidiary. Subsidiary allophones can be positional and combinatory. Positional allophones are used in certain positions traditionally. For example, the English /l/ is realized in actual speech as a positional allophone: it is clear in the initial position before vowels and /j/, and dark in the terminal position.

Combinatory allophones appear in the process of speech and result from the influence one phoneme upon another.

In practical teaching the most important allophones should be mentioned to teach the pupils correct pronunciation.

Each phoneme is realized in a certain pattern of distribution (распространение). Allophones of a phoneme which never occur in identical positions are to be in complementary (дополнительный) distribution which means that they complement each other, and belong to the set of all the allophones of one phoneme. For example, an RP speaker pronounces a "dark" allophone of /I/ before consonants in final position whereas he usually pronounces a "clear" allophone of /I/ only before vowels and /j/. It means that in English both the "dark" and the "clear" allophones of /I/ are in complementary distribution as they are never opposed to each other in identical phonetic positions. In spite of their acoustic and articulatory differences they are not perceived by English speakers as different sounds. Phoneme /k/: Kate, skate, book, tobacco.

Allophones of a phoneme, which do occur in the same phonetic position but can never distinguish words, are said to be in free variation. For example, 1) different degrees of aspiration of the initial /k/; 2) different variants of articulation of the phoneme /t/: a voiceless plosive [t] or a slightly voiced tap (the tip of the tongue touches very quickly and momentary the alveolar ridge) in city. Though these sounds differ acoustically, they do not distinguish words in English. Therefore, they are allophones of the same phoneme and are in free variation.

Two or more sounds are realizations of different phonemes if they are in parallel distribution and they serve to differentiate words. For example, /ð/ and /d/ may occur at the beginning, at the end of a word or a syllable and between vowels: this, mother, both, day, today, Ted.

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Minimal distinctive features of phonemes are discovered through oppositions. This method helps to prove whether the phonemic difference is relevant or not, whether the opposition is single, double or multiple.

E.g. /t/ and /d/ differ according to the work of the vocal cords and force of articulation: /t/ - voiceless fortis, /d/ - voiced lenis. Their other characteristic features are irrelevant, thus /t/ and /d/ have only one distinctively relevant feature – single opposition. We can prove that this opposition is really phonemic by the minimal pairs: ten – den, time – dime, try – dry.

If there are two distinctively relevant features, the opposition is double, e.g. /p/ and /d/ differ according to 1. the work of the vocal cords and force of articulation, 2. the place of articulation: /p/ - voiceless fortis, labial bilabial, /d/ - voiced lenis, lingual forelingual apical alveolar. This opposition is really phonemic. It can be proved by the minimal pairs: pie – die, pail – dale, park – dark.

The opposition /b/ and /h/ is multiple because these phonemes differ according to 1. the work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation, 2. the place of articulation, 3. the manner of articulation: /b/ - voiced lenis, labial bilabial, occlusive; /h/ - voiceless fortis, glottal, constrictive. The phonemic nature of this opposition can be proved by minimal pairs: be – he, bit – hit, bill – hill, bow – how.

On the one hand, the phoneme is an abstraction and a generalization. It is abstracted from its variants that exist in actual speech and is characterized by features that are common to all its variants (e.g. /b/ is an noise, occlusive, bilabial, lenis consonant, as these features are common to all its allophones).

On the other hand, the phoneme is material, real and objective because in speech it is represented by definite material sounds. In other words the phoneme exists in speech in the material form of speech sounds.

The phoneme correlates with its allophones as the universal correlates with the individual.

The phoneme can therefore be regarded as a dialectical unity of its two aspects: the material and the abstracted aspects. None of these aspects of the phoneme can be neglected or disregarded. That is the materialistic view of the phoneme.

There exist other views of the phoneme. Some linguistic consider the phoneme to be but an abstraction and deny its material character. This viewpoint is expressed by linguists of the Prague Phonological School, for whom a phoneme is just an abstract concept.

Other linguists overestimate the material, real and objective character of the phoneme. For example, D. Jones considers a phoneme to be a family of sounds, others consider it to be a class of sounds. The /p/ phoneme for example, is said to 'consist' of its various allophones.

The linguistic role of the phoneme is clearly seen from the three linguistic functions of the phoneme, namely, the constitutive, the distinctive, and the identificatory functions.

Though the phonemes themselves, in isolation, have no meaning, they are linguistically important, since, in their material form (i.e. in the form of speech sounds) they constitute morphemes, words, all of which are meaningful. Hence, the constitutive function of the phoneme.

Besides the constitutive function, the phoneme performs the distinctive function, because phonemes distinguish one word from another.

On account of the fact that native speakers identify definite combinations of phonemes as meaningful linguistic units (words, word combinations, or phrases), linguists distinguish a third function of the phoneme — the identificatory (or recognitive) function of the phoneme. It appears that when identifying linguistic units the use of the right phoneme is not the only significant factor, the use of the right allophone is not much less important. Thus, in English it is the aspiration of /p/ rather than its voicelessness, and the non—aspirated character of /b/, that make clear the opposition of /p/ and /b/ in words like "pie" and "buy". This is why an Enqlishman will often hear "bride" for "pride" when a foreigner uses a non-aspirated /p/.

We may now summarize by saying that the phoneme is a linguistically relevant unit that exists in speech in the material form of its allophones. The phoneme is, therefore, a phonological unit which is represented in speech by phonetic units (the speech sounds). In analysing speech we constantly carry out a phonetic and a phonological analysis. The analysis is primarily phonetic when we describe the articulatory and acoustic characteristics of particular sounds and their combinations; but when we determine the role of those sounds in communication, it is mainly phonological analysis. Thus both phonemes and sounds are simply two sides of one and the same phenomenon — the sound substance of language, which can be analysed on either the phonemic (functional) level or the allophonic (variational) level.

 

THE PHONEMIC INVENTORY OF ENGLISH

 

The first problem of phonological analysis is to establish the phonemes in a definite language. This can be carried out only by phonological analysis based on phonological rules. There are two methods to do that: the distributional method and the semantic method.

The distributional method is based on the phonological rule that different phonemes can freely occur in one and the same position, while allophones of one and the same phoneme occur in different positions and, therefore, cannot be phonologically opposed to each other. For example, as /p/ and /b/ can freely occur in the same phonetic context (as in "pea" — "bee", "rope" — "robe"), they are consequently different phonemes. But one cannot find [p] aspirated and [p] non—aspirated in the same phonetic position in English. Therefore in English they are allophones of one and the same phoneme, whereas in Chinese the aspirated and non—aspirated stops are regarded as different phonemes, because they occur in the same phonetic positions.

The distributional method of analysis is a purely formal method of identifying the phonemes of a language. This is why the distributional method of identification of the phonemes in a language works even when one does not know the language at all. The method is widely used by the American linguists who study the languages of the Red Indians. But it appears to be complicated and the investigators very often cannot do without native speakers to confirm their conclusions concerning the phonemic status of certain speech sounds.

The s e m a n t i c method, in its turn, is based on the phonological rule that a phoneme can distinguish words when opposed to another phoneme or zero in an identical phonetic position.

The opposition /z/ versus /t/ is called a phonological opposition. The opposition /z/ versus /—/ is called a zero (phonological) opposition. The pairs of words which differ only in one speech sound are called minimal    pairs.

The semantic method of identification of the phonemes in a language attaches great significance to meaning. The investigator studies the function of sounds by collecting minimal pairs of words in the language. If two speech sounds distinguish words with different meanings, they form a phonological opposition and are realizations of two different phonemes. If not, they are aIlophones of one and the same phoneme. Thus, it is clearly evident that in English [s] and [t] are realizations of two different phonemes ("sea"—"tea", "so"—"toe"), while [t] aspirated and [t] non-aspirated are allophones of one and the same phoneme, as they cannot distinguish words. Such analysis is sometimes referred to as "minimal pair test".

The semantic method is widely used by scholars all over the world. It was mainly with the help of the semantic method that Soviet scholars identified the phonemes in the languages of the numerous peoples inhabiting our multinational country. That made it possible to create written languages for them. But to identify all the phonemes of a language is not always a simple thing to do. Time and again there emerge difficulties as to the phonemic status of certain sounds. Such difficulties arise when one deals with weakened vowels occurring in unstressed position. It primarily concerns the schwa vowe /ǝ / in English which occurs only in unstressed position.

The problem is whether there is a schwa vowel phoneme in English. Scholars are not in agreement on this point. Though / ǝ / can be opposed only to weakened vowel phonemes, which are partially reduced due to their position in unstressed syllables, it can form phonological oppositions with a number of other phonemes and can distinguish words.

E.g.,  accept — except; armour — army

officers — offices; allusion — illusion;  temper — tempo;

solar — solo;  forward — foreword

It is sometimes considered that / ǝ / is an allophone of /ʌ/, because /ʌ/ is almost exclusively used in stressed syllables (as in "comfort" /'kʌmfǝt/, "abundant" / a ˈb ʌ n d ǝ n t/), whereas /ǝ / occurs only in unstressed syllables.

There are cases when the establishment of phonological oppositions is not sufficient to determine the phonemic status of a sound, especially when the sound is of a complex nature.

In the English language the sounds /ʧ/, /ʤ/, /tr/, /dr/, /ts/, /dz/ form phonological oppositions and distinguish such words as "eat — each", "head — hedge", "tie - try", "die — dry", ”hat — hats", "buzz — buds". But does that mean that all of them are monophonemic and should be included into the phonemic inventory?

N. Trubetzkoy worked out a number of rules which help to determine whether a sound of a complex nature is monophonemic. The main rules state that, firstly, a phoneme is indivisible, as no syllabic division can occur within a phoneme. Secondly, a phoneme is produced by one articulatory effort.

Thirdly, the duration of a phoneme should not exceed that of other phonemes in the language.

Consequently, /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ in words like "cheese, each, jail, hedge" are monophonemic because both acoustic and physiological analysis provide sufficient evidence that these sounds are produced by one articulatory effort, their duration does not exceed the duration of either /t/ (as in "tear"), or IʃI (as in "share"), or /d/ (as in "dare"). Besides that, in words like "cheese, chair, each, hedge, John, jail", no syllabic division occurs within the sounds /ʧ/and/ʤ/. /ts/, /dz/ are obviously biphonemic combinations (i.e. combinations of two phonemes), because their duration exceeds the average duration of either /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/.

As for /tr/, /dr/ (as in "tree, dream") their phonemic status will remain undecided until special acoustic and physiological analysis is made. As /t/ and /r/, on the one hand, and/d/ and /r/, on the other, are so closely linked in the pronunciation of Englishmen, D.Jones calls them affricates. (He distinguished them from sequences /t/+/r/ and /d/ + /r/ as in "rest—room, hand—writing".) Most phoneticians regard /tr/ and /dr/ as biphonemic clusters.

There appears to be another analogical problem. It concerns the phonemic status of the English diphthongs and the so—called "triphthongs". Are they monophonemic or biphonemic clusters in English?

The syllabic and articulatory indivisibility of English diphthongs and their duration which does not exceed the duration of English historically long vowels /i:, u:, ɔ:, ɑ:, ɜ:/, clearly determine their monophonemic character in English.

As for /aɪǝ/, /aʊǝ/, it has been proved acoustically and physiologically that in English they cannot be considered monophonemic They are not produced by a single articulatory effort, as there is an increase in the force of articulation and intensity not only for the first element, but for the last element as well. The syllabic division generally occurs in between the diphthong and the schwa vowel (as in "flier", "flower"). On account of that they should be regarded as biphonemic clusters of a diphthong with the schwa vowel.

 

THE SYSTEM OF PHONOLOGICAL OPPOSITIONS IN ENGLISH

The second problem of phonological analysis is the identification of the inventory of distinctive features on which all the phonological oppositions in the language are based.

Every sound is characterized by a number of features, not all of which are equally important for communication. If one compares some of the allophones of /p/, it appears that all of them have common features and features which characterize only a few of them. The problem is to decide which of the features of a group of common sounds in a certain language are phonologically relevant and which of them are irrelevant, or incidental. This is important not only for a detailed characterization of the phonemic systems of languages and the identification of their typology. It is also most essential for teaching purposes, since the phonologically relevant features require special attention in pronunciation teaching.

We primarily need to explain the following:

Each phoneme is characterized by a certain number of phonologicalIy  relevant features, which are its constant distinctive features (as they distinguish the phoneme from all the other phonemes of the language) .

Each allophone of a certain phoneme is characterized by definite phonologically relevant features (which are common to all its allophones) plus a number of i r r e I e v e n t, or incidental, features   (which distinguish the allophone from all the other allophones of the phoneme).

The phonologically relevant features that characterize the phoneme /p/ are, therefore, bilabial, occlusive and forties. Aspiration, plosiveness, labialization, etc. are phonologically irrelevant features.

Phonologically irrelevant does not necessarily mean useless for communication. It has already been mentioned that the aspiration of /p/ helps the listener to distinguish  it from /b/ (as in "pride" — "bride", "pie" — "buy").

The point is that if the speaker substitutes one phonologically relevant feature (say, bilabial) for any other relevant feature (say, forelingual), the phoneme ceases to be the phoneme it was and becomes a different phoneme (in this case /p/ is replaced by /t/). Such a substitution is easily perceived by any native speaker whether he had been trained in phonetics or not. ("pie" — "tie", "cap" — "cat").

The substitution of one irrelevant feature for another (say, aspirated for non-aspirated) results in a different allophone of one and the same phoneme [p] aspirated and [p] non-aspirated). Such a substitution does not affect communication.

When interpreted phonologically, it means that not all the articulatory features of actual sounds are equally important for the identification of the phonemes of a language and the words they constitute. Some of the features are phonologically relevant, others are irrelevant.

The phonologically relevant features are normally identified by opposing one phoneme to every other phoneme in the language. But there often occur difficulties, which can be overcome with the aid of physiological and acoustic analyses.