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The notion of translation
2. Translation as a means of interlingual communication
3-6. Ways of translation
Translation – a process of conveying or rendering the meaning (content) of SL units in the TL as well as the result of this process.
There are 2 forms of translation: 1) in writing and 2) in viva voce (orally).
Translation conveys the meaning of the following language units:
The phoneme – is a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language unit, it has a form but has no meaning. Phonemes are graphically represented by letters. Phonemes usually do not take part in the process of translation, but they are used in translation of proper names, geographical names, internationalisms, neologisms and units of specific national lexicon.
“a”, І-в-а-н-о-в - I-v-a-n-o-v
The morpheme – is the smallest indivisible 2-facet language unit (has both form and meaning). It is the smallest sense unit.
superprofit – надприбуток, cloudless – безхмарний
The word – is the basic 2-facet language unit. The word is the smallest independent sense unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes).
blackboard – дошка, strawberry – полуниця, dog – собака
The word group/word-combination – is the largest 2-facet lexical unit comprising more that 1 word.
first night – прем’єра
The sentence – is a 2-facet unit of speech which conveys a more or less complete thought.
Every dark cloud has a silver lining. – Немає лиха без добра.
A cat may look at a king. – Дивитися не заборонено.
The text – is the largest 2-facet language unit, consisting of sentences bound by the same idea.
Two languages are involved into translation process.
The Source language (SL) – is the language of the original / the language from which the process of translation is performed.
The Target language (TL) – is the language of the translation / the language into which the process of translation is performed.
Translation may imply any sense-to-sense substitution of a SL unit for its semantic (=having the same meaning) equivalent in the TL.
I live in Kiev – Я живу в Києві
first night – перша ніч
pretty woman - гарна жінка
Translation may imply any sense-to-sense conveying even if the lexical meaning of the constituents which make up a SL unit is not replaced with the identical lexical meaning in the TL.
First night - прем’єра
pretty woman - красунечка
Translation may imply any functional substitution at the text level. It is aimed at recreating the function of a SL unit. Is used in the translation of titles and stylistic devices.
“The Village” – “Таємничий ліс” (the title was changed for marketing purposes)
“Some like it hot” – “В джазі лише дівчата”
“Over the hedge” – “Лісова братва”
Significance of translation
The importance of translation in the modern society has long been recognized. Not a single contact at the international level or between 2 foreign persons can be established without the help of translation. Translation is important for functioning of different international bodies. Numerous branches of national economies can be kept up with the modern development thanks to the everyday translation. The other branches of human activity dealing with the translation are: nuclear science, exploration of outer space, ecology, mining, medicine, electronics etc. The social and political role of translation has been the most felt in the XX-XXI century when it provided the dissemination (=spreading) of political ideas. Translation is a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching the national languages, literatures and cultures. Finally, whatever the type of matter is translated, the linguistic and social significance of translation remains unchanged because it promotes the enrichment of lexicon in the target language.
2. Translation as a means of interlingual communication
Translation makes possible an exchange of information between users of different languages by producing the TL text which has an identical communicative value with the SL text.
However, the TLT is not fully identical with the SLT as to its form or meaning/content due to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the SL and the TL. But the users of the translation (translation receptors) identify the TLT with the SLT functionally, semantically and structurally. There are 3 types of identification:
The functional identification – the TLT (the translation) functions as if it were the SLT (quoted, published, cited etc.).
The structural identification – the structure of translation (of the TLT) should follow that of the original. There should be no change in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments in the text (not the structure of every sentence!)
The semantic identification – the TLT (the translation) should have the same meaning as the SLT (the original) (the meaning of the whole text, not every word, otherwise it would be word-for-word translation, not literary artistic/proper).
The translator is allowed to resort to different translation transformations if direct translation is impossible for some reasons.
3-6. Ways of translation
Literal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning and similar form in the SL and in the TL.
There are 2 ways of performing literal translation: transcription and transliteration.
Transcription is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation.
New-Castle – Нью-Касл
impeachment – імпічмент (but not імпеачмент)
leader – лідер
Transliteration is the substitution of letters in the process of translation.
London – Лондон (but not Ландан)
Dublin - Дублін
bank – банк
club - клуб
Literal translation renders the meaning of the following words: 1) proper names (Іванов – Ivanov), 2) geographical names (Дніпро –Dnipro), 3)international words (football – футбол), 4)units of specific national lexicon (вареники – varenyky), 5)neologisms (metrosexual – метросексуал).
The translator’s false friends are those words that have similar form but different meaning in the SL and in the TL.
magazine – журнал (but not магазин)
lunatic – божевільний, шалений (but not лунатик)
artist – художник, митець (but not артист)
Verbal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning but different lingual form in the SL and in the TL.
Verbal translation renders sometimes the morphological structure of the SL words (ex. helpless – безпорадний, superprofit – надприбуток).
In most cases, the morphological structure is not preserved because of the differences in the morphological systems of the SL and the TL.
bomber – терорист
manager – управляючий
Verbal translation permits the choice of variants, which is practically impossible in literal translating:
minister – міністр (literal), посланник, священик (verbal)
bank – банк (literal), берег (річки), край, мілина, вал/насип (verbal)
Verbal translation, however, does not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences it may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense:
I am reading now – is not Я є читаючий зараз but Я читаю зараз
to take measures – is not брати міри but вживати заходів
Word-for-word translation/ consecutive verbal translation (дослівний послідовний) is used at the level of word-combinations and sentences, which have the same structure, word order, and the same lexical meanings of the constituents in the SL and the TL.
Who took my book? – Хто взяв мою книжку?
Word-for-word translation is often used at the initial stage of translation. It does not always work with phraseological units (cold as a cucumber – незворушний) except some cases when a phraseological unit is taken from a third language – Latin or Greek (to cross the Rubicon – перейти Рубікон).
Interlinear translation is used for a faithful rendering of the meaning (but not structure) expressed by word-combinations and sentences, which are different in structure, at the level of some text. The sense of phraseological units is not conveyed.
Interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units (sentences, passages etc.)
It is used at the higher level of translator’s activity. It is performed with transformations when there is no identical form in the TL.
Interlinear translation offers more variants than word-for-word translation.
Who took my book? – Де моя книжка?/ У кого моя книжка?
Various transformations in interlinear and literary translations are inevitable because of grammatical/structural, stylistic and other divergences in the SL and in the TL.
She said she would come. – Вона сказала, що прийде.
Transformations are also inevitable when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units in the TL.
a trip – коротка подорож, to ski – їздити на лижах
Interlinear translation is widely practiced at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a foreign language.
But it doesn’t convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original (e.g. translation of a stanza or passage)
Literary translation represents the highest level of a translator’s activity. It can be either literary artistic or literary proper depending on the type of the matter under translation.
Literary artistic translation (художній літературний) is used to translate prose or poetry and faithfully conveys the content and artistic merits of belles-lettres /bel’letr/ texts or passages of the literary text.
Literary proper translation (власний літературний) is used to translate some texts that may include scientific or technical matter, business correspondence, newspapers and documents. In short, any printed or recorded matter devoid of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors etc.).
Literary translations are always performed with many transformations because of stylistic differences between the SL and the TL. Transformations are necessary to convey the meaning of the original, and to achieve ease and beauty of the original composition.
Literary proper/artistic translation of a larger passage often requires some additional research or linguistic, historical and other enquiries in order to clarify the obscure places (historic events, units of specific national lexicon, neologisms, archaisms etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may require a philological or historical inquiry.
Ex. «Слово о Полку Ігоревім» - “A word about Ihor’s Regiment” (in a word-for-word translation, which doesn’t correspond to the real meaning)
“The Tale/ lay of the Host of Ihor”, “The Song of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prince Igor’s Raid against the Polovtsi” (which corresponds to the real meaning of the title – повість, пісня про Ігореве військо, дружину)
«Тихий Дон» (М.Шолохов) – “And Quiet Flows the Don” or “The Don Flows home to the Sea” (a word-for word translation “The Quiet Don” or “The Still Don” would not convey the poetic flavour of the original title)
These variants could have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel’s content, into its main idea and into the whole system of images of these works.
7. KINDS OF TRANSLATION
The sense of a language unit (the content of a whole matter) can be conveyed in the TL either in writing or in viva voce (orally). Depending on the form of conveying the sense/content, the following kinds of translating/ interpreting (oral translating) are to be distinguished:
It can proceed/ be performed in 2 ways:
8-10. Descriptive, antonymic and machine translation
The process of translation may be viewed as a number of manipulations with the form or content of the original (SLText) as a result of which the translator creates the TLText.
Translation transformations are operations with the SLT aimed at conveying its meaning with maximum (-al) faithfulness in strict compliance with the standards of the TL.
Descriptive translation is a complex transformation which is used to explain the meaning of SL units, often with the help of hierarchically different TL units. For example, a word may be translated as a word-combination or vice versa.
Descriptive translation may be used:
1) to render the meaning of equivalent-lacking units, for instance:
Верховна Рада – The Ukrainian Parliament (Descriptive), Verkhovna Rada (Literal), Supreme Council (word-for-word), Supreme Rada (mixed)
вареники – a traditional Ukrainian dish, mea or fruit dumplings (Descriptive), varenyky (literal)
stepwife – the current wife of a women’s ex-husband or the ex-wife of a current husband (зведена дружина – теперішня дружина колишнього чоловіка або колишня дружина теперішнього чоловіка)
leather spinster – a successful heterosexual woman who is happily unmarried (успішна гетеросексуальна жінка, яка свідомо не прагне шлюбу)
Delhi belly – a disordered/ upset stomach (розлад шлунку)
himbo – a man who is good-looking but unintelligent or superficial (хімбо – чоловік, привабливий ззовні, але інтелектуально нерозвинутий і досить поверховий)
bimbo – a girl of the same qualities (бімбо – дівчина або молода жінка таких же якостей – приваблива, але поверхова)
gaydar – an intuitive sense that enables someone to identify whether another person is gay (гейдар – здатність (дар) розпізнавати нетрадиційну орієнтацію іншої людини (геїв)
2) to render the meaning of phraseological units or idioms:
as mad as a hatter – навіжений
to have light fingers – бути нечистим на руку
to rain cats and dogs – лити як з ведра
burn not your house to rid it of the mouse – жертвувати великим, щоб уникнути малої неприємності (співвідносити засоби та ціль)
3) in footnotes to explain obscure places in narration
spiritual – спірічуел, релігійна пісня афроамериканців
Within the text the word “metrosexual” may be referred to as метросексуал or in a footnote explained – чоловік, який витрачає багато часу та грошей на свою зовнішність та спосіб життя
Antonymic translation is a complex transformation in which an affirmative in sense or structure SL unit is rendered as a negative in sense or structure but identical in meaning TL unit or vice versa.
It is a complex transformation, which describes the situation from the opposite point of view. (2nd definition)
Take it easy. – Не переймайся. (an affirmative SL unit corresponds to a negative TL unit)
Немає лиха без добра. – Every dark cloud has a silver lining.
I mean it! – Я не жартую!
Antonymic translation is used:
1. when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units in the TL:
He was in (his) short-sleeves. – Він був без піджака. (to be in (one’s) short-sleeves – means not wearing a jacket, it has no direct equivalent in Ukrainian language and is translated automatically - без піджака)
Я думаю, що він не здасть екзамен. – I think he will fail the exam./ I don’t think he will pass the exam.
The defeat of the team was the result of its inferiority. – Поразка команди була наслідком переваги суперників.
Do you mind – ви не проти
2. when a SL unit has 2 negations which create an affirmation:
She was by no means non-elegant. – Вона була досить елегантною. (This sentence contains 2 negations: by no means and non-elegant, which corresponds to an affirmation досить елегантною)
The door was not unlocked. – Двері були зачинені.
3. to achieve a necessary expressiveness:
A bomb fell close. – Бомба впала неподалік.
No, it makes all the difference in the world. – Ні, не все одно!
I don’t think it will hurt you. – Думаю, вам це не зашкодить. (I don’t think – Думаю, will hurt you - не зашкодить)
I hope you will stay. – Сподіваюся ви не втечете.
She was a woman of character. – Вона була жінкою не без характеру. (експресивне речення)
4. to avoid the repetition of the same structure close to each other in the same text:
She didn’t utter a word and he said nothing. – Вона промовчала і він нічого не сказав.
Machine translation is a procedure in which a computer program analyzes a SLT and produces a TLT without further human intervention.
Human interference into machine translation is represented with pre-editing, proof-reading and post-editing practice.
Machine translating has made considerable progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment remains restricted because machine translation can be performed only on the basis of programs elaborated by linguistically trained operators.
Machine translation may be successful at the level of separate words, sometimes word-combinations and simple sentences and quite seldom at the level of text.
Advantages of machine translation are: its speed and rich lexicon of its dictionaries, which can be useful for translation at the level of words.
Disadvantages: preparing programs for any matter is connected with great difficulties and takes much time, when the quality of translation is far from being always satisfactory even at the lexical level – at the level of words, which have direct equivalent lexemes in the TL.
ex. London – is the capital of GB. – Лондон – капітал Великобританії
Greater difficulties are connected with morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes) and syntactic units (word combinations, sentences) with various means of connection between their parts. There are frequent violations of syntactic agreement and government between the parts of the sentence in the machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator select in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations and sentences in the TL.
As a result, any machine translation needs a thorough proof-reading and editing, which can take even more time than the hand-made translation.
11-12. UNITS OF TRANSLATION
Since the formal description of any language is based on distinguishing a system of interrelated language units, it is possible to assume that the process of translation may be viewed on the basis of distinguishing certain units (units of translation). There are different approaches to distinguishing units of translation.
APPROACH # 1
The unit of translation is the smallest unit of the SL text, functioning in the process of translation more or less independently. The units of translation may be different for different languages and different kinds of translation. There are 2 kinds of translation: written and oral.
In written translation the unit of translation is usually represented by a sentence or sometimes 2 consecutive sentences – if one of them is structurally or semantically incomplete. These sentences usually contain all the information necessary to recreate the structure of a corresponding sentence in the TL. The sentence – is a speech unit which contains a more or less complete thought and that is why it may function more or less independently in the process of translation.
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