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The speaker’s judgment may be of different kinds, that is, the speaker may express various modal meanings. Modal verbs unlike other verbs, do not denote actions or states, but only show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination with which they form compound modal predicates. These modal verbs may show that the action (or state, of process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered etc. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive. This or that meaning is to a great degree determined by communicative type of the sentence and the form of the infinitive. That is a huge problem for foreign learners of English, who make a great deal of mistakes in this field. So, the aim of my work is to show how modal verbs can be used, in what case we need one or other verb and why.
Introduction
Modality is expression of speaker’s attitude to what his utterance denotes.
The speaker’s judgment may be of different kinds, that is, the speaker may express various modal meanings. Modal verbs unlike other verbs, do not denote actions or states, but only show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination with which they form compound modal predicates. These modal verbs may show that the action (or state, of process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered etc. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive. This or that meaning is to a great degree determined by communicative type of the sentence and the form of the infinitive. That is a huge problem for foreign learners of English, who make a great deal of mistakes in this field. So, the aim of my work is to show how modal verbs can be used, in what case we need one or other verb and why.
English modality can be expressed not only by modal verbs. Modality can be expressed by different linguistic means. In actual speech all forms expressing modality work together to make the meaning clear. But in every case there is some leading form that expresses the main attitude. These forms fall into four categories: phonetic (intonation), grammatical (mood), lexico-grammatical (modal verbs), lexical (modal words and phrases). But the most important from them is the third form, which includes modal verbs. It is important to take into account one more feature peculiar to modal verbs. They all show that a certain action is represented as necessary, doubtful, etc. From the point of view of the speaker, there are verbs which ‘help’ other verbs to express a meaning: it is important to realize that “modal verbs” have no meaning by themselves/ A modal verb such as would has several varying functions; it can be used, for example, to help verbs express ideas about the past, the present and the future. It is therefore wrong to simply believe that “would is the past of will”: it is many other things.
English modality can be expressed not only by modal verbs. There are many ways to express it – generally Mood shows the relation between the action expressed by the predicate verb and reality. The speaker establishes this relation.
We find the following modal verbs in English: can, may, must, ought, shall, should, will, need and dare. Besides, to have and to be in some of their uses are also classed among modal verbs. A modal verb in combination with the infinitive forms a modal compound predicate.
Modal verbs are defective verbs since they lack many forms characteristic of regular verbs: they have no –s in the third person singular in the present tense and no verbal, so they have no analytical forms; some of them lack the form of the past tense.
Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:
1) They are followed by the infinitive without the particle to (with the exception of ought, to have and to be);
2) Their interrogative and negative forms are built up without the auxiliary do.
Most of the verbs have more than one meaning. Each of their meanings is characterized by a specific usage.
1) Some of the meanings may be found in all kinds of sentences; others occur only in affirmative of interrogative or negative sentences;
2) Different meanings may be associated with different forms of the infinitive – simple and perfect (both in the active and passive forms), continuous and perfect continuous;
3) If the modal verbs have more than one form (can – could, may – might, will – would, also the verbs to have and to be), their different meanings are not necessarily found in all those forms.
The use of modal verbs is in most cases independent of the structure of the sentence: the use of this of that modal verb is determined by the attitude of the speaker towards the facts contained in the sentence. In this case we may speak of the free or independent use of modal verbs.
When the use of modal verbs is structurally dependent, their meaning is sometimes weakened; in fact, it may be quite vague. This may be accounted for by the fact that these verbs become rather part of the structure than bearers of individual meaning.
It is important to take into account one more feature peculiar to modal verbs. They all show that a certain action is represented as necessary, possible, desirable, doubtful, etc. from the point of view of the speaker. Consequently, modal verbs are generally used in conversation. In past-time contexts they may be found only in reported speech or thought, Thus You should have done it before, or He might be wrong, or It must be true cannot be possibly found in narration unless they are used after He thought that … He said that … He knew that …, etc.
Chapter I
The modal verb can has the following forms: can – the present tense (e.g. He can speak English) and could – the past tense. The form could is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts as a form of the Indicative Mood (e.g. He could speak English when he was a child), b) in present-time contexts to express unreality, or as a milder and more polite form of can, or as a form implying more uncertainty than can (e.g. He could speak English if necessary. Could I help you? Could it be true?). Compare with the Russian “мог бы”: Он мог бы сделать это, если бы у него было время (unreality). Не мог бы я Вам помочь? (politeness). Неужели он мог бы так сказать? (uncertainty).
Can has the following meanings:
E.g. He can read a little French.
This meaning may also be expressed by to be able . The phrase can be used in all tense-forms if necessary.
In the meaning of ability and capability can occurs in all kinds of sentences.
E.g. Right and left we can go, backward and forward freely enough, and men always have done so. You can move about in all directions of Space, but you cannot move about in Time.
In this case can is followed by the simple infinitive and reference is made to the present. But depending on the context it may also refer to the future.
E.g. We can discuss your paper after lunch.
The form could may be used in past-time contexts and in this case it is followed by a simple infinitive. It is a form of the Indicative Mood here.
E.g. He could read a great deal during the holidays.
Could the boy read before he went to school?
After what had happened I couldn’t trust him.
The form could may also be used in present-time context in combination with the simple infinitive to express unreality with reference to the present or future.
E.g. I told myself that I could never stop, and with a gust of petulance I resolved to stop forthwith. (не смог бы прекратить).
As the form could may be used in two ways it is usually understood as expressing unreality with reference to the present or future unless there are indications of past time in the sentence or in the context. Thus the sentence She could paint landscapes will be understood as Она могла бы писать пейзажи.
If there is no indication of past time in the context but the speaker wishes to refer the action to the past, was/were able is used of could to avoid ambiguity.
E.g. She was able to explain the mystery.
In combination with the perfect infinitive could indicates that the action was not carried out in the past.
E.g. She could have explained the mystery. (Она могла бы объяснить эту тайну; но не объяснила).
E.g. You can see the forest through the other window.
We can use either the Present Perfect of the Present Perfect Continuous in this sentence.
In this meaning can is found in all kinds of sentences. It is followed by the simple infinitive and it refers the action to the present of future.
E.g. You can obtain a dog from the Dog’s Home.
Can we use the indefinite article with this noun?
We can’t use the indefinite article with this noun.
In past-time contexts the form could is used. It is followed by the simple infinitive in this case.
E.g. You could see the forest through the other window before the new block of houses was erected.
The form could in combination with the simple infinitive may also express unreality with reference to the present of future.
E.g. You could see the houses from here if it were not so dark.
In combination with the perfect infinitive, could indicate that the action was not carried out in the past.
E.g. You could have seen the house from there if it had not been so dark.
E.g. You can take my pen.
Can in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, interrogative sentences in which a request is expressed, and in negative sentences where it expresses prohibition.
E.g. You can use my car. Can I use your car? You can’t use my car today.
In this meaning can is combined with the simple infinitive.
The form could with reference to the present is found only in interrogative sentences in which it expresses a more polite request.
E.g. Could I use your car?
The form could is found in reported speech (i.e. in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses).
E.g. He said that I could use his car.
He asked me if he could use my car.
E.g. Can it be true?
In this meaning can is found only in interrogative sentences (in general questions). Besides, sentences of this kind are often emotionally colored and so their application is rather restricted.
Depending on the time reference, can in this meaning is used in combination with different forms of the infinitive.
Thus, if reference is made to the present, the simple infinitive is found with static verbs.
E.g. Can it be so late?
With dynamic verbs, the continuous infinitive is used.
E.g. Can she be telling lies?
Can in combination with the perfect infinitive refers the action to the past.
E.g. Can he have said it? Can she have told a lie?
The combination of can with the perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with static verbs.
E.g. Can she really have been at home all this time
E.g. It can’t be true. (Это не может быть правдой. Вряд ли это так.)
In this meaning can is found only in negative sentences, which are often emotionally colored. Depending on the time reference, this can is also used with different forms of the infinitive/
E.g. He can’t be really ill.
She can’t be telling lies.
He can’t have said it.
She can’t have been at home all this time.
She can’t have been waiting for us so long.
Could is also used in this way making the statement less categorical
E.g. It couldn’t be true.
She couldn’t be telling lies.
He couldn’t have said it.
She couldn’t have been at home all this time.
She couldn’t have been waiting for us so long.
Can and could followed by different forms of the infinitive, are found in special questions where they are used for emotional coloring (to express puzzlement, impatience, etc.).
E.g. What can (could) he mean?
What can (could) he be doing?
What can (could) he have done?
Where can (could) he have gone to?
It can be rendered in Russian as: Что, собственно, он имеет в виду?
As is seen from the above examples, the form could referring to present is sometimes clearly opposed to can in that it expresses unreality whereas can expresses reality. This may be observed in the following meanings:
ability – He can speak English. He could speak English if necessary.
possibility due to circumstances – You can get the book from the library. You could get the book from the library if necessary. E.g. “You can have a million books on our television screen, and even more. There is nothing to throw away.” (I. Asimov)
“How could a man be a teacher? “ (I. Asimov)
Could is used either as a milder or mote polite form of can as a form implying more uncertainty than can:
permission – Can I use your pen? Could I use your pen? (more polite)
uncertainty, doubt, improbability – Can it be true? Could it be true (less certain). It can’t be true. It couldn’t be true (less certain).
The modal verb may has the following forms: may – the Present tense (e.g. it may be true) and might – the Past tense. The form might is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts, mainly in reported speech in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses (e.g. He told me that it might be true) and b) in present-time contexts as a milder and more polite form of may, or as a form implying more uncertainty than may (e.g. Might I come and see you? It might be true), or to express unreality (e.g. He might have fallen ill if he hadn’t taken the pills).
May has the following meanings:
1) supposition implying uncertainty
E.g. He may be busy getting ready for his trip.
In Russian this meaning is generally rendered by means of the modal adverbs возможно and может быть.
In English this meaning may also be rendered by means of the attitudinal adverbs perhaps and maybe.
In the meaning of supposition implying uncertainty the verb may occurs in affirmative and negative sentences.
E.g. He may be at home.
He may not be at home (Возможно, что его нет дома).
Two factors may temporarily have increased their caution. (W. Faulkner)
In this meaning may can be followed by different forms of the infinitive depending on the time reference expressed.
May in combination with the simple infinitive usually refers the action to the future.
E.g. He may come soon.
The action may also refer to the present but only with stative verbs.
E.g. He may be ill.
He may not know about it.
May in combination with the Continuous infinitive of dynamic verbs refers the action to the present.
E.g. It’s too late to phone him now. He may be sleeping.
I never see him about now. For all I know, he may be writing a book.
May in combination with the Perfect infinitive refers the action to the past.
E.g. He may have fallen ill.
“What’s happened to the dog?” I asked. “It isn’t here. His master may have taken it with him.”
The combination of may with the Perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with stative verbs.
E.g. He may have been at home from about two hours.
However, if may is followed by a dynamic verb, the Perfect Continuous infinitive is used.
E.g. He may have been waiting for us for an hour.
In the meaning of supposition implying uncertainty, the form might is also found. It differs from the form may in that it emphasizes the idea of uncertainty. It may be followed by the simple, Continuous or Perfect infinitive.
E.g. He might come soon. He might be ill.
He might be doing his lesson now. He might have spoken to her yesterday.
E.g. You may order a taxi by telephone.
A useful rough-and-ready rule is that rime adverbs may come at either end of the sentence, but not in the middle.
May in this meaning occurs only in affirmative sentences and is followed only by the simple infinitive.
The form might is used in past-time contexts in accordance with the rules of the sequence of the tenses.
E.g. He said the might order a taxi by telephone.
Might followed by the Perfect Infinitive indicates that the action was not carried out owning to certain circumstances (expressed in the sentence or implied).
E.g. He might have fallen ill if he hadn’t taken the medicine.
Luckily he wasn’t driving the car. He might have been hurt.
You are so careless. You might have broken the cup. (Ты чуть было не разбил чашку).
It seemed to him that the most interesting thing in life was what might lie just around the corner. (O. Henry)
E.g. The director is alone now. So you may see him now.
If you have got a car and can drive, you may spend part of your holiday moving from place to place. (C. Eckersley)
May in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, in interrogative sentences which usually express a request, and in negative sentences where it denotes prohibition. But in negative sentences it is not common as prohibition is generally expressed by other modal verbs (see can and must).
E.g. You may smoke in here. May I smoke in here? You may not smoke in here.
In this meaning may is combined only with the simple infinitive. In interrogative sentences the form might is also found when we wish to express a more polite request.
E.g. May I join you?
In reported speech the form might is used.
E.g. He told me that I might smoke in the room He asked me if he might join us.
E.g. You might carry the parcel for me. You might have helped me.
Here we find only the form might used in affirmative sentences and followed by the simple of Perfect infinitive. In the latter case it expressed reproach for the nonperformance of an action.
The form might which expresses unreality is not always parallel to may. Might expresses unreality only in combination with the Perfect infinitive.
E.g. You might have let me know about it beforehand.
There was a car accident in front of our house. Luckily Tommy was at school. He might have been killed.
In most cases might is used as a milder and more polite form than may of as a form implying a greater degree of uncertainty:
permission – May I call to my mother now? Might I call to my mother now? (very polite)
Might I take the liberty of pointing out that you have made a small mistake? (J. Joyce)
supposition – He may come a little later. He might come a little later (less certain).
The Chancellor’s measures might help towards an agreement on an incomes policy. (Moscow News).
The two forms are not opposed in the meaning of possibility due to circumstances where only may is used, nor in the meaning of disapproval of reproach where might alone is found.
E.g. You may find the book at the library.
You might have considered your parents’ feelings.
May as well (might as well, might just as well) + infinitive is a very mild and an emphatic way of expressing an intention. It is also used to suggest of recommend an action.
E.g. I may as well take the child with me. (Я, пожалуй, возьму ребенка с собой. Пожалуй, будет лучше, если я возьму ребенка с собой).
You may as well give him the letter. I might as well stay at home tonight.
“I’ll go at six.” “That’s far too late; you might just as well not go at all.” (Можно было бы и не ходить туда совсем).
It might have been worse means “Things are not so bad after all.” In Russian it is rendered as: Могло бы быть и хуже or в конце концов дела обстоят не так уж и плохо).
He might have been a … means ‘He might have been taken for a …’ ‘He looked as a …’
E.g. Roy Wilson, the new doctor, was twenty-eight, large, heavy, mature and blond. He might have been a Scandinavian sailor.
If I may say so … has become a stereotyped phrase in which the meaning of permission is considerably weakened.
E.g. If I may say so, I think you have treated him very badly.
In addition to the above cases illustrating the independent use of may, this modal verb occurs in subordinate object clauses after expressions of fear as well as in adverbial clauses of purpose and concession.
Here are some more examples from the works of the English and American literature:
E.g. Try as she might, her poor head just wouldn’t let her think what it was she should rightly remember.(O. Wilde)
You certainly won’t. You may freeze your nose, but you won’t be shivery cold. It’s hard and dry, you know. (F. Scott Fitzgerald)
The modal verb must has only one form it is used in present-time contexts with reference to the present of future and in combination with the Perfect infinitive it refers to the past. In past-time contexts this form is used only in reported speech, i.g. the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed with must.