Syntagmatic valency of adverbs and its actualization in speech

They secretly decided to leave the town.

Occasionally adverbs of manner may be found in Position 1. In that case the adverb does not only modify the predicative verb, but also the subject:

Angrily he denied that he had stolen the documents. (= he was angry when he denied that he had stolen the documents)

Adverbs of degree (or intensifiers) are usually placed in Position 3, before the word they modify:

It’s absolutely the best museum in the country.

I definitely saw him crossing the street.

The adverb enough, when it modifies an adjective or an adverb, is placed in post-position to them:

You can go to school when you're old enough.

He didn’t work quickly enough.

However, adverbs of degree (intensifiers), if they modify verbs, may also be found in Position 4, at the end of the sentence:

The only way Glass could overcome this irreconcilable difference was by doing away with the bar lines completely.

But if the plea can be supported by a finding of guilt alone, a defendant might escape punishment altogether.

When occupying the initial position in the sentence, altogether is used parenthetically as a conjunctive adverb (= on the whole):

Latin America is a world where primitive ways of life exist near ultra-modern cities. Altogether, it is a continent full of vitality.

 

Chapter 2. Paradigmatics of adverbs

2.1 Semantic classification of adverbs

The adverb in English undergoes two paradigmatically relevant classifications:

1)  semantic;

2)  lexico-grammatical.

Semantic classification is based on the meaning of adverbs. According to their meaning, adverbs fall into the following groups:

1.  Adverbs of time: afterwards, already, at once, eventually, 
immediately, lately, now, presently, soon, suddenly, then, when, yesterday, yet, etc.:

Our class is going to London tomorrow.

It’s been two weeks now since she called home.

2.  Adverbs of frequency: always, constantly, hardly ever, never, occasionally, often, seldom, sometimes, three times, twice, etc.:

There is always somebody at home in the evenings.

They sometimes stay up all night.

3.  Adverbs of place or direction: abroad, ashore, backwards, below, downstairs, everywhere, far, here, inside, outside, seaward(s), there, to and fro, where, etc.:

We’ll have to eat here – everywhere else is full.

He was famous, both at home and abroad.

A dog began to bark somewhere inside.

I was now far behind the others and I knew I couldn’t catch up.

The use of somewhere, anywhere and nowhere in different kinds of sentences is similar to the use of the corresponding indefinite pronouns some, any and no.

4.  Adverbs of manner: badly, clearly, deeply, fast, how, quickly, sideways, sincerely, somehow, well, willingly, etc.:

His campaign was not going well.

The economic crisis reflects badly on the government’s policies.

We are sincerely grateful for your help.

Adverbs of manner saying how an action is performed can freely occur with dynamic verbs, but not with stative verbs:

He looked into the problem carefully.

He walked upstairs quietly.

The boy blushed violently.

5.  Adverbs of degree or intensifiers can be used before adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs to give information about the extent or level of something: completely, enough, extremely, highly, muck, nearly, perfectly, pretty, quite, rather, really, so, somewhat, terribly, too, unusually, very, etc.:

Sometimes the UK seems completely isolated from the main stream of European culture.

The ambassador made a brief statement, saying that the talks had been very productive.

Myers said that two year prison sentence for rape was totally unacceptable and inadequate.

Adverbs of degree or intensifiers may be subdivided into three semantic groups:

1)  emphasizers (emphasizing the truth of the communication): actually, at all, clearly, definitely, indeed, just, literally, plainly, really, simply, etc.:

What do you really think about it?

When I told you to ‘get lost’ I didn’t expect to be taken literally.

Fame is often simply a matter of being in the right place at the right time.

I just can't understand it.

You haven't done it well at all.

2)  amplifiers (expressing a high degree): absolutely, altogether, badly, bitterly, completely, deeply, downright, entirely, extremely, (by) far, fully, greatly, heartily, much, perfectly, pointblank, quite, terribly, thoroughly, utterly, very, etc.:

Each panel member should ensure that he or she thoroughly tests the case presented for project approval.

Artists are terribly difficult people for us ordinary mortals to deal with.

Because of the language barrier and culture shock, such insights are far too rare.

I told Fred pointblank that he had made a mistake.

He said the diesel costs £16,600, which is downright preposterous.

Local residents are deeply concerned about the threat to health posed by the power station.

For many years, the benefits of the expensive system greatly outweighed the disadvantages.

3)  downtoners (lowering the effect): a bit, almost, barely, enough, hardly, kind of, (a) little, moderately, more or less, nearly, partly, quite, rather, scarcely, slightly, somewhat, sort of, sufficiently, etc.:

We took a slightly more direct root.

He was only partly responsible for the accident.

I kind of disapprove of such methods.

I think you're a bit too young to be watching this.

Almost nothing was done to improve the situation.

6.  Focusing adverbs draw attention to the most important part of utterance. They can be of two kinds:

1)  restrictive: alone, exactly, just, merely, only, precisely, purely, simply, especially, etc.:

Some students lose marks simply because they don't read the question properly.

It's important to write these goals down, rather than merely think about them.

2)  additive: again, also, either, equally, even, too, etc.

She stayed and nursed him back to health again.

You must have a good education, but practical training is equally important.

7.  Viewpoint adverbs are used to make clear what viewpoint the speaker is speaking from; that is, identifying what features of something are being talked about (economically, morally, politically, scientifically, weather-wise, financially, ideologically, industrially, environmentally, logically, medically, outwardly, technically, visually, etc.):

Financially, the accident has been a disaster for the owners of the tunnel.

Geographically and linguistically, these islands are closer to the mainland than to the neighboring islands.

Economically, the project is bound to fail.

The brothers may be alike physically, but they have very different personalities.

A number of phrases are used in a similar way (politically speaking, in political terms, in terms of politics, from a political point of view, as far as politics are concerned):

Politically/In political terms, this summer is a crucial time for the government.

Financially/From a financial point of view, it is a good investment.

8.  Attitudinal adverbs which express the speaker's comment on the content of what he is saying. Such adverbs can be of two kinds:

1)  adverbs expressing a comment on the truth-value of what is 
being said, indicating the extent to which the speaker believes 
what he is saying is true: admittedly, allegedly, apparently, certainly, decidedly, definitely, doubtless, maybe, obviously, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, quite likely, supposedly, surely, undoubtedly, etc.:

Few women, presumably, would want to return to the assumptions on which the old system was based.

He was supposedly delivering some papers to her but I think it was just an excuse to see her.

The impact, occurring shortly before midnight, apparently knocked out all communications before warning could be given.

Perhaps the public does not have much choice in the matter. 
Certainly, he had very little reason to fear anyone.

2)  adverbs expressing some attitude towards what is being 
said: amazingly, cleverly, (in)correctly, curiously, foolishly, (un)fortunately, funnily enough, (un)happily, incredibly, ironically, (un)justly, (un)luckily, oddly, preferably, reasonably, regrettably, remarkably, sensibly, significantly, strangely, tragically, typically, unexpectedly, etc.:

He is wisely staying at home tonight.

Naturally we were extremely annoyed when we received the letter.

Attempts to denigrate his playing simply because of his popularity are misplaced but regrettably widespread.

9.  Conjunctive adverbs: above all, accordingly, alternatively, anyhow, anyway, as a result, at any rate, besides, by the way, consequently, finally, first(ly), for all that, for example, further, furthermore, hence, however, incidentally, in other words, in spite of that, instead, in that case, lastly, likewise, meantime, mean while, namely, nevertheless, next, on the contrary, on the one (other) hand, otherwise, rather, secondly, similarly, so, still, that is, then, therefore, though, thus, too, yet, etc.:

I'd like you to do two things for me. First, phone the office 
and tell them I'll be late. Secondly, order a taxi to be here 
in about half an hour.

Incidentally, he left you a message. It is on your desk.

I didn't like the food there. However, I didn't complain about it.

He has been working very hard. He looks fit, though.

10.  Formulaic adverbs (markers of courtesy): cordially, kindly, please, etc.:

Will you kindly help me with the parcel?

We cordially invite you to our party.

Let me have a look at the picture, please.

The adverbs when, where, how and why belonging to different semantic groups mentioned above have one point in common — they serve to form questions and introduce some kinds of subordinate clauses. In the former case, owing to their auxiliary function, they are called interrogative adverbs (a). In the latter case, also owing to their auxiliary function, they are called conjunctive adverbs (b). In both cases they perform different adverbial functions in the sentence:

a)  When did you see him last? (adverbial modifier of time)

Where are you going? (adverbial modifier of place)

How did you manage it? (adverbial modifier of manner)

Why didn't you tell me about it? (adverbial modifier of cause)

b)  Sunday was the day when he was least busy.

(adverbial modifier of time)

The thing to find out was where he was then.

(adverbial modifier of place)

How it was done remains a mystery to me.

(adverbial modifier of manner)

I wanted to know why he had left us so abruptly.

(adverbial modifier of cause)

As is seen from the above examples, the conjunctive adverbs 
can introduce attributive, predicative, subject and object clauses.

The adverb how, in addition to the above functions, can also 
be placed at the head of an exclamatory sentence. In this case it is 
often followed by an adjective or an adverb but it may also be 
used alone. This how is sometimes called the exclamatory how:

How unfair grown-ups are!

Oh, how the baby cries!

2.2 Lexico-grammatical subdivision of adverbs

syntagmatic paradigmatic peculiarities adverbs english

Adverbs may be divided into three lexico-grammatical subclasses: qualitative, quantitative, and circumstantial.

Qualitative adverbs show the quality of an action or state much in the same way as a qualitative adjective shows the quality of some substance (walks quickly and a quick walk, speaks loudly and a loud speech, etc). The connection between qualitative adverbs and adjectives is obvious. In most cases the adverb is derived from the adjective with the help of the most productive adverb-forming suffix –ly.

Qualitative adverbs, with or without –ly, are a subclass of adverbs with peculiar lexico-grammatical features. According to their meaning, the include adverbs of manner (well, badly, fast, quickly, clearly, suddenly, deeply, sincerely, willingly, sideways, somehow, how, etc.).

Qualitative adverbs usually modify verbs or statives. As they characterize the quality of an action or state, they are inwardly bound with a verb or stative and are usually placed as close as possible to the verb or stative they modify:

Tony and the daughter of the Polish governor catch one glimpse of each other and are madly aflame.

Quantitative adverbs show the degree, measure, quantity of an action, quality, state (very, rather, too, nearly, greatly, hardly, fully, quite, utterly, twofold, etc.). In traditional grammar they are referred to as adverbs of degree. They may be subdivided into several clearly pronounced sets:

1)  adverbs of high degree. These adverbs are sometimes classed as "intensifiers": very, quite, entirely, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly, absolutely, strongly, considerably, pretty, much;

2)  adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse) also belonging to the broader subclass of intensifiers: too, awfully, tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically;

3)  adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, astonishingly, amazingly;

4)  adverbs of moderate degree: fairly, comparatively, relatively, moderately, rather;

5)  adverbs of low degree: slightly, a little, a bit;

6)  adverbs of approximate degree: almost, nearly;

7)  adverbs of optimal degree: enough, sufficiently, adequately;

8)  adverbs of inadequate degree: insufficiently, intolerably, unbearably, ridiculously;

9)  adverbs of under-degree: hardly, scarcely.

Many adverbs of degree are restricted to a small set of lexical items, e.g. deeply anxious, highly intelligent, strikingly handsome, sharply critical.

Some degree adverbs tend to be distinguished in terms of positive and negative attitude. Fairly, quite, entirely suggest a positive meaning:

I’m fairly certain I can do the job.

He plays quite well.

I entirely agree with you.

Rather, completely, utterly suggest a negative meaning:

The instructions were rather complicated.

The explosion completely destroyed the building.

She utterly failed to convince them.

The combinability of quantitative adverbs is more extensive than that of qualitative adverbs. Besides verbs and statives, quantitative adverbs modify adjectives, adverbs, indefinite pronouns, numerals, modals, and even nouns:

I quite like opera.

He had become fully aware of her.

Rather disconsolate she wandered out into the cathedral.

She knew it only too well.

Very probably he won’t budge.

Nearly everybody came to our party.

It was nearly ten.

He is wholly master of the situation.

The combinability of some adverbs of this class can be rather narrow. The adverb very (frightfully, awfully, etc.), for instance, mostly precedes those adjectives and adverbs which have opposites of comparison. It does not, as a rule, modify verbs or numerals. The combinability of nearly or almost, on the other hand, is so extensive, that these words are close to particles.

According to M. Y. Blokh, the degree adverbs, though usually described under the heading of "quantitative", in reality constitute a specific variety of qualitative words, or rather some sort of intermediate qualitative-quantitative words, in so far as they are used as quality evaluators. In this function they are distinctly different from genuine quantitative adverbs which are directly related to numerals and thereby form sets of words of pronominal order. Such are numerical-pronominal adverbs like twice, thrice, four times, etc.; twofold, threefold, many fold, etc. Thus, the first general subclass of adverbs is formed by qualitative adverbs which are subdivided into qualitative adverbs of full notional value and degree adverbs — specific functional words.

Circumstantial adverbs do not characterize the action itself but name certain circumstances attending the action described in the sentence and usually referring to the situation as a whole. Therefore circumstantial adverbs can be used in a sentence in which the only verb is a link-verb, that is, where no action is described:

He will be ten tomorrow.

This accounts for the fact that, unlike qualitative and quantitative adverbs, circumstantial adverbs are not necessarily placed near the verb, they may occupy different places in the sentence:

It wasn’t any too warm yesterday.

Yesterday they had a snow-squall out west.

Circumstantial adverbs may be considered as the movable words. The most mobile are adverbs of time and place. They can occupy several positions without any change in their meaning, as in:

Usually he signs well.

He usually signs well.

He signs well usually.

When H. Sweet speaks of adverbs, as showing almost the last remains of normal free order in Modern English, it concerns, mostly, circumstantial adverbs. 

Circumstantial adverbs include:

1)  adverbs of time: now, then, yesterday, lately, soon, afterwards, presently, immediately, eventually, when, etc.

2)  adverbs of frequency: often, seldom, sometimes, always, hardly ever, never, constantly, occasionally, etc.

3)  adverbs of place or direction: here, there, everywhere, downstairs, below, ashore, abroad, inside, outside, northward(s), to and fro, backwards, where, etc.

4)  adverbs of consequence and cause: therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, why, so, etc.

5)  adverbs of purpose: purposely, intentionally, deliberately.

Barring some adverbs with the –ward(s) suffix (backwards, inwards), the –ice suffix (twice, thrice), circumstantial adverbs have no typical stem-building elements (Cf. with the –ly suffix incident to qualitative adverbs). They are often morphologically indivisible (north, home, down, etc.), even more often are they related by conversion with prepositions (in, out, behind), conjunctions (since, before), nouns (north, home), adjectives (late, fare).

Only a small group of circumstantial adverbs denoting indefinite time and place have opposites of comparison. Most adverbs of this subclass have no forms of any grammatical category.

Circumstantial adverbs are mostly used in the function of adverbial modifiers of time and place. But sometimes they can be used in other functions, for instance, as attribute:

See the notes above.

The room upstairs is vacant.

Among circumstantial adverbs there is also a special group of pronominal adverbs when, where, how, why used either as interrogative words to form questions, or as connectives to introduce subordinate clauses:

Where shall we go?

We’ll go where you want.

In the former case, owing to their auxiliary function, they are called interrogative adverbs:

When did you see him last?

Where are you going?

How did you manage to do it?

In the latter case, also owing to their auxiliary function, they called conjunctive adverbs:

Sunday was the day when he was least busy.

The thing to find out is where he is now.

How it was done remains a mystery to me.

The adverb how, in addition to the above functions, may also be placed at the head of an exclamatory sentence. In this case it is often followed by an adjective or an adverb but it may also be used alone. This how is sometimes called the exclamatory how:

How unfair grown-ups are!

Look how well I’m looked after!

According to M. Y. Blokh, circumstantial adverbs are divided into notional and functional.

The functional circumstantial adverbs are words of pronominal nature. Besides quantitative (numerical) adverbs mentioned above, they include adverbs of time, place, manner, cause, consequence. Many of these words are used as syntactic connectives and question-forming functionals. Here belong such words as now, here, when, where, so, thus, how, why, etc.

As for circumstantial adverbs of more self-dependent nature, they include two basic sets:

1)  adverbs of time: today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, shortly, recently, seldom, early, late, etc.

2)  adverbs of place: homeward, eastward, near, far, outside, ashore, etc.

The two varieties express a general idea of temporal and spatial orientation and essentially perform deictic (indicative) functions in the broader sense. Bearing this in mind, we may unite them under the general heading of "orientative" adverbs, reserving the term "circumstantial" to syntactic analysis of utterances.

Thus, the whole class of adverbs will be divided, first, into nominal and pronominal, and the nominal adverbs will be subdivided into qualitative and orientative, the former including genuine qualitative adverbs and degree adverbs, the latter falling into temporal and local adverbs, with further possible subdivisions of more detailed specifications. 

 

Chapter 3. Syntagmatic valency of adverbs and its actualization in speech 

 

3.1 Syntactic valency and combinability patterns of adverbs

Every word is characterized by its semantic and syntactic valencies potentially inherent in it, which in syntagmatics become the actualization of these potentials, i.e. semantic (or lexical) and syntactic combinabilities.

The establishment of constructional syntagmatic relations is conditioned by the valent properties of the units entering into the syntagmatic relation. The valency of notional units is their potential ability to get into syntagmatic relations and to pattern with the units of appropriate types. The character of valency is predetermined by the semantic specialization and by the semantic completeness of the unit. These characteristics are evidently diametric: the more specialized a notional element is the less valent it is. But it does not mean that semantically specialized notional units are devoid of any valency, they can pattern with extentions which are optional.

Syntagmatic valencies can be of categorial, subcategorial and individual character. The categorial valency is usually specified by the subcategorial valent properties of linguistic units. Their interaction makes the unit active in its syntagmatic behaviour when its valency is realized. For instance, every lexico-grammatical class of notional words possesses categorial and subcategorial valency.

Due to their central role in the sentence notional verbs are the most syntagmatically active elements which realize their valency functioning as “heads” in syntactic constructions of nominal and adverbial complementation.

According to their categorial valency substantive elements display patterning with the qualitative elements which are designed to denote qualities of objects and phenomena. The categorial valency of qualifying elements (adjectives and adverbs) is not strong, they pattern regularly with degree adverbs: too imposing, very short, extremely difficult, easily enough. The subcategorial and individual valencies are in full accord with the categorial valency of linguistic units [26, 42].

Grammatical valency of linguistic units reveals their ability to pattern with particular grammatical forms.

Since the valency of linguistic units is their potential ability to contract syntagmatic relations, it should be actualized in speech. This takes place in speech communication whenever linguistic units occur in actual speech units (utterances). The actualization of valency is achieved through the concrete combinability of linguistic units in quite concrete cases of their occurrence in speech units.

The realization and actualization of the valent properties pertaining to units and classes of units are conditioned by several factors among which the semantic compatibility of combining elements is of primary regulating significance. The actualization of valency is regulated and conditioned by contextual conditions or the distribution of a linguistic unit.