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In linguistics, intonation is variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words, instead it is used for a range of functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions of the speaker, signalling the difference between statements and questions, and between different types of question, focusing attention on important elements of the spoken message and also helping to regulate conversational interaction. It contrasts with tone, in which pitch variation in some languages does distinguish words, either lexically or grammatically. Although intonation is primarily a matter of pitch variation, it is important to be aware that functions attributed to intonation such as the expression of attitudes and emotions, or highlighting aspects of grammatical structure, almost always involve concomitant variation in other prosodic features.
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...3
ENGLISH INTONATION , ITS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS…………………....4
THE FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF ENGLISH INTONATION………………………...9
PHONOSTYLISTICS AND STYLISTIC USE OF INTONATION……………………13
PROBLEMS OF PHONOSTYLISTICS………………………………………………...13
INTONATIONAL STYLES…………………………………………………………….15
STYLISTIC USE OF INTONATION IN LITERATURE, PRESS, BROADCASTING, EVERYDAY COMMUNICATION…………………………………………………….18
CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………….....22
Some phoneticians also distinguish a semantic function of intonation (other terms are distinctive or phonological). Some parameters of the intonation pattern are capable of differentiating the actual meaning of a phrase or utterance of the same grammatical structure and the same lexical composition:
I don’t like to read °anything| (=ընդհանրապես չեմ սիրում կարդալ)
I don’t like to read ëanything| (=ես ոչինչ չեմ սիրում կարդալ)
Intonation can also be in contradiction with the syntactic structure and lexical content of the utterance, thus neutralizing them:
- Do you know what I’m here for? - No (=question)
- I’ve broken your vase. - ´How °nice of you (=sarcasm, reprimand)
One more important function of intonation, singled out by some phoneticians, is a stylistic one, as intonation is used to characterize a particular style or a variety of oral speech. As it’s rather a wide topic it will be discussed in a separate units later.
To sum it up we can say that all the functions of intonation overlap and can be viewed as different aspects of discourse function.
A speaker uses a great number of varieties of the
language according to the situations he finds himself in. As he/she
moves through the day, so the variety of the language he/she uses is
moving. It is changed instinctively or consciously at home, with friends,
at work, so on. An educated speaker is multilingual. Functional stylistics
studies certain aspects of language variations. The aim of it is to
analyze language habits and identify the linguistic features which are
restricted to certain social contexts, to explain them and to classify
them.
Phonostylistics studies the way phonetic means of the language function in various oral realizations of the language. The choice of the phonetic means suitable to this or that situation depends on a number of factors, among which extra-linguistics ones are very important as they result in phonostylistic varieties.The most important extra-linguistic factor is the aim of utterance, which is a sort of strategy for the language user. People speak in order to inform, persuade, instruct, narrate, etc. In each particular case speakers select a number of intonational means that serve his/her purpose and make his/her speech more effective. That is why the aim of utterance is considered to be a style-forming factor, whereas the rest are style-modifying ones.
The nature of intercourse or the form of speech can also influence the choice of a phonetic style. It suggests listening, speaking, or exchanging remarks and may be a lecture, a discussion, a conversation, etc. Depending on the number of participants it may be a monologue, a dialogue or a polilogue. The last factor sets the degree of speech spontaneity or preparedness. An utterance can be qualified as fully spontaneous, when the verbal realization of speech is simultaneous to reproduction of the idea in the mind of the speaker. Speech is half-prepared when the speaker has thought over what he/she is going to say (for example, a teacher giving explanations at a lesson). Speech is fully prepared when the speaker prepares the reading of a piece of prose (or poetry) or when he/she quotes. In this case the speech is prepared in advance, is written on paper and is generally read.
Other style-modifying factors include social and psychological situations. The occupations of the speaker and the listener, the social status, age and gender determine the degree of formality of speech and the attitudes expressed (it may be a friendly talk, a formal conversation, public or non-public speech, etc.). If the situation is formal the speaker will tend to articulate more slowly and carefully. Individual sounds will be given their full forms, none will be omitted. In a very informal situation, on the other hand, he/she will be more likely to speak quickly, less carefully, and some sounds will either change their form or be omitted entirely.
All these factors are interconnected and interdependent in everyday life situations and it’s normally the combination of several of them that characterizes the phonetic style. The task of phonostylistics is firstly, to identify the set of phonetic expressive means, which are stylistically significant; secondly, it must outline a method of analysis, which would allow to arrange these features in such a way as to facilitate the comparison of the use of one language with any other; thirdly it must decide on the function of these features by classifying them into categories, based on the extra-linguistic purpose they have.
One of the most urgent problems of phonostylistics is the classification of phonetic styles. Different scholars name different styles according to the principle the classification is based on. We give preference to the classification suggested by the phoneticians of our faculty. Taking the aim of utterance as the main principle of their classification they distinguish the following phonetic styles:
Any of these styles has a great many varieties in accordance with style-modifying factors. Besides any of these styles may be realized either in the form of reading or in the form of speaking. Speaking and reading are two different psychic processes in which the sounding utterance is generated in different ways. When a person reads a text, he/she has a ready piece of information, written on paper. So he/she doesn't have to think what to say. The only thing he/she has to think of is how to say, how to make it sound proper, according to the norm of the language, suitable for the situation. As a result the usage of phonetic means is characterized by a high degree of regularity.
When a person produces a spontaneous text, that has not been written or prepared beforehand, he has to think of both: what and how to say. When such a person starts speaking he/she has only an intention to make an utterance. In most cases he/she doesn't even know how long the utterance is going to continue. The speaker has to decide spontaneously how to express what he intends using proper lexical, phonetic and grammatical means. The main thing that differs reading and speaking is the segmentation (or delimitation) of speech into phrases and intonation groups. In reading a phrase corresponds to a written sentence. The end of the phrase is marked by a pause with a complete stop of phonation and by the falling nuclear tone. Intonation groups in the text which is read coincide with syntagms. Each intonation group has a semantic centre. Intonation groups of a spontaneous text may be syntactically complete or incomplete (they may lack a semantic centre). The end of the intonation group is characterized by the absence of any pause and often is pronounces with the mid-level or even rising nuclear tone. While reading a person makes mainly syntactic pauses, those which mark the end of a phase or an intonation group. Sometimes a reader makes emphatic pauses too, to emphasize the following part of utterance. While speaking a person makes three kinds of pauses - syntactic, emphatic and hesitational, among which hesitations prevail. Hesitation pauses are characteristic of spontaneous speech belonging to any style.
In spontaneous speech semantic centres are more prominent, they are much louder, pronounced at a much higher pitch and are much slower compared to the rest of the utterance. We can say that rhythm in spontaneous texts is often non-systematic, variable and unpredictable. Normally, each act of communication is addressed at a listener, so it’s important to understand what perceptional characteristics of an oral text have a style-differentiating value for him/her. The most important ones are considered to be delimitation (or segmentation), the accentuation of semantic centres and the speaker’s timbre.
Now we are going to discuss the main intonational features of each style. It should be born in mind that each style exists in a number of varieties which depend on the style-modifying factors.
1) Information Style
It seems to be the most neutral as its main purpose is to convey information without expressing any emotions or attitudes. It is the least marked kind of situationally influenced English. This kind of style is used mostly in broadcasting, press reporting, oral representation of any information or a written text, in formal business conversations and classroom teaching.
Among the prosodic features characteristic of this style we should mention the following:
2) Academic Style
It is used in lectures, scientific discussions, conferences, etc. Its purpose is to inform, to win the attention and interest of the public, to establish a contact with the audience. As it is an intellectual and volitional type of speech (the speaker appeals to the intellect and will of the listener) it requires some emotional colouring. It is achieved by varying prosodic features, by the alternation of pauses, types of heads and terminal tones, by using tempo contrasts:
3) Publicistic Style
This is the style of public discussions on political, judicial or economic topics, sermons, parliamentary debates. Its aim is to persuade, to influence, to involve the audience into the talk and to make the listeners take the speaker’s point of view. It is never spontaneous and is often even rehearsed. This style is extremely emotional, mimics and gestures are widely applied.
The prosodic features are the following:
4) Declamatory Style
It is used on stage, TV screen or in class in reading aloud prose or poetry. Its aim is to appeal simultaneously to the mind and emotions of the listener, so this style is highly emotional and expressive. It requires special training. On the prosodic level the following features are the most common:
5) Conversational Style
This is the style of every-day communication between friends, relatives, well-acquainted people. It is relaxed, characterized by the lack of planning, so it is unpredictable, there are a lot of errors, slips, hesitations, elliptical constructions:
As we have mentioned already, each style has some varieties depending on the extra-linguistic factors. Each can be realized in different forms: monologue, dialogue, polilogue, in speaking and reading, etc. It’s also important to note that any style is seldom realized in its pure form, each oral text usually includes phonetic characteristics of different styles, so there’s overlapping (or fusion) of styles. But the knowledge of peculiarities of the usage of different phonetic styles improves the effectiveness of speech, facilitates understanding and communication, so it shouldn't be ignored in both teaching and learning a foreign language.
STYLISTIC USE OF INTONATION IN LITERATURE, PRESS, BROADCASTING, EVERYDAY COMMUNICATION
INFORMATIONAL STYLE
According to Ucas, two decades ago there was no gender gap, but this has now become one of the most distinctive features of applications.
(BBC World News)
The Thai firm, which owns the John West and Chicken of the Sea brands, has been on an acquisition spree in the past year.
(BBC World News)
Air pollution is definitely damaging. The World Health Organization estimates it causes 3.7 million deaths each year.
(Time News)
Italian screen actress Virna Lisi, famed in the 1960s for appearing opposite stars including Frank Sinatra, has died at the age of 78.
(Health News)
London
Tonight-fair to partly cloudy, low 64 fahrenheit, winds east-northeast at 5-10 meters per hour. (Broadcast)
In these sentences we express information. We use these sentences in press, in broadcasting etc. In these sentences we use stable and normal loudness, normal or relatively slow speed, mostly syntactic pauses, systematic and properly organized rhythm. We use this style without expressing any emotions or attitudes.
ACADEMIC STYLE
"We can define language as a system of communication
using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts,
ideas, and experiences."
(E. Bruce Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research,
and Everyday Experience, 2nd ed. Thomson, 2008)
An economy is a system which tries to balance the available resources of a country (land, labour, capital and enterprise) against the wants and needs of consumers. It deals with three key issues:
Old English was derived from the Germanic languages of the Anglo-Saxons who settled in Britain in the fifth century.
(The Lectures of OE)
This style we use in lectures, discussions, conferences, etc. Its aim is to center the attention and interest of the public, to create a contact with the audience. These sentences requires some emotional colouring. During pronunciation of this style we use rather high loudness, normal or relatively slow speed , systematic and properly organized rhythm.
PUBLICISTIC STYLE
We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness…
(Th. Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence).
We’re talking about healing our nation. We’re not talking about politics. We’re all here to do everything in our power to save lives… I’m here to thank you for hearing that call. Actually, I shouldn’t be thanking you, I should be thanking a Higher Power for giving you the call.
(George W. Bush).
A party’s candidates for President and Vice-President are generally choosen at a national conversation, which meets every 4 year.
This is the style of public discussions on political, judicial or economic topics. Its purpose is to involve the audience into the talk. These sentences are extremely emotional.
DECLAMATORY STYLE
“And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.”
(John F. Kennedy)
“I am not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of the world.” - Diogenes“ Ignorance, the root and stem of all evil.”
(Plato)
It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.
(Aristotle)
My bounty is as boundless as the sea,
My love as deep; the more I give to thee,
The more I have, for both are infinite.
(Romeo and Juliet, 2.2)
↑All the world is ↓astage,
(William Shakespeare “As you like it”)
This style is used on stage , TV screen, poetry etc. I take examples from poetry and thoughts of famous people like Plato, Aristotel, John F. Kennedy. The aim of this style is to appeal simultaneously to the mind and emotions of the listeners. Thus this style is more emotional and impressive. To exhibit such kind of sentences we need varied loudness, partly slow speed, properly organized and stable rhythm and falling, level nuclear tones with low, high or stepping head.
CONVERSATIONAL STYLE
"But if you really wanted to
walk on the beach, all you had to learn to do was pick up a piece of
seaweed, shake it in the dog's face and everything would be hunky dory."
(Spalding Gray, Swimming to Cambodia. Theatre Communications
Group, 2005)
"It was the first day off in a long time, and all of us were trying to get a little rest and relaxation out by the pool at this big, modern hotel that looked something like a prison. If I had to call it anything I would call it a 'pleasure prison.'