Пунктуация английского языка

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lecture №5

 

Theme:      The Compound Sentence.

 

Plan:

1.Independent Clauses Joined Asyndetically,

      2. Independent Clauses joined by conjunctions and adverbs.

      3. Asyndetic Co-Ordination plus a Conjunction.

 

The independent clauses of a compound sentence joined asyndetically are divided by a comma to denote a brief pause, falling tone, and often enumeration of closely connected actions. The copulative conjunction ‘and’ might be inserted between the clauses.In case of a longer pause and weaker connection, to denote enumeration of actions, the independent clauses of a compound sentence joined asyndetically are divided by a semicolon, especially if there is a comma, or commas, within these clauses.The second or third independent clause of a compound sentence may have an adversative meaning. Such clause is introduced by a comma', in case of a longer pause, by a semicolon. The adversative conjunction ‘but’ might be inserted between the clauses.

The second or third independent clause of a compound sentence joined asyndetically may have a causal meaning. Such clause is mostly introduced by a colon or a dash, sometimes by a comma. The causal conjunction ‘for’ might be inserted between the clauses.

• Resultative Relation

The second or third independent clause of a compound sentence joined asyndetically may have a resultative meaning, and it is introduced by a comma or a semicolon. The resultative conjunction ‘so’ might be inserted between the clauses.

- Explanatory Relation.When the second or third independent clause of a compound sentence has an explanatory meaning, it is introduced by a colon or a

Both parts of a disjunctive question, being independent clauses of a compound sentence joined asyndetically, are divided by a comma to denote falling tone, connection of meaning, and a short pause.

-Independent Clauses Joined by Conjunctions and Adverbs

The independent clauses of a compound sentence joined by co-ordinative conjunctions or adverbs are usually separated by a comma (or commas) to denote a short pause;by a semicolon, in cases where a full-stop might be put if the conjunction were omitted, to denote a longer pause and weaker connection. There is also a semicolon if there are commas within the independent clauses.

In compound sentences before ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’ the comma may be omitted to denote close connection.In case of several independent clauses,when theco-ordinative conjunction is repeated, there is a comma before each conjunction.

  - Asyndetic Co-Ordination plus a Conjunction

If a compound sentence contains several clauses enumerating closely connected actions, there are usually commas between the clauses, also before the conjunction introducing the final clause

Lecture №6

 

Theme:                              The Complex Sentence.

 

Plan:

    1.Subject Clauses.

     2. Predicative Clauses.

     3. Object Clauses.

     4.Attributive Clauses.

     5. Adverbial Clauses.

 

-A subject clause, like the subject of a simple sentence, is not divided by any PM from the rest of the sentence, being closely connected with it, since this clause is the subject of the whole complex sentence, and only a brief pause is needed. Neither the place of such clause in the sentence, nor the way of its introduction, influences the punctuation. It may come at the beginning of the sentence, or, when introduced by the anticipatory ‘it’, at the end.

Subject clauses are joined to the rest of the sentence by means of the conjunction ‘that’, by the conjunctive adverbs ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘where’, and by the conjunctive pronouns ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘which’.

A predicative clause, like the predicative of a simple sentence, is not marked off by any PM from the rest of the sentence, being closely connected with it, since this clause is the predicative of the whole complex sentence, and only a brief pause is needed. The way of introduction does not influence the punctuation. These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions ‘that’, ‘as if’, ‘as though’, ‘whether’, by the conjunctive pronouns ‘what’, ‘who’, ‘which’, and by the conjunctive adverbs ‘why’, ‘how’, ‘when’, ‘where’. When introduced asyndetically, a predicative clause is marked off by a comma, or by a dash to indicate a longer pause.

Note. Often some part of the sentence, or some clause, which should be set off by commas according to the rules of punctuation, comes between the link verb and the predicative clause, thus splitting them.

-An object clause, like an object of a simple sentence, is not separated by any PM from the principal clause, being closely connected with the verb or the verbal it depends on. Almost no pause is needed before an object clause.

If the object clause precedes the principal clause, there may be a comma between them to denote a pause and emphasis.

Object clauses are often introduced asyndetically; also, by the conjunctions ‘that’, ‘if’, ‘whether’, ‘lest’, by the conjunctive adverbs ‘how’, ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’, and by the conjunctive pronouns ‘what’, ‘which’, ‘who’.

-Attributive Clauses

Restrictive attributive clauses are joined to the principal clause either asyndetically (‘contact clauses’), or by the relative pronouns ‘that’, ‘which’, ‘who (whom)’, by the relative adverbs ‘when’, ‘where’, without any PM to denote close connection with the antecedent in the main clause.

N on-restrictive (or descriptive) attributive clauses introduced by the relative pronouns ‘who’, ‘which’, and by the relative adverbs ‘when’, ‘where’, are normally set off by a comma or double commas to denote their detached character and the additional information concerning the antecedent in the main clause. A descriptive attributive clause modifying the whole principal clause is marked off from the latter by a comma or double commas. Such clauses are introduced by the relative pronoun ‘which’.

When she wrote a letter, which was seldom, she sent her regards to all her relatives. Appositive attributive clauses modifying abstract nouns, such as ‘information’, ‘feeling’, ‘thought’, ‘idea’, ‘fact’, ‘notion’, ‘remark’, ‘impression’, ‘expression’, etc., are introduced by the conjunctions ‘that’, ‘whether’, normally without any PM.

An adverbial clause of time preceding the main clause is normally set off by a comma, like a lengthy adverbial modifier of time, to denote weak dependence, rising tone, and a pause. (This is not a strict rule, some writers omit the comma.)

Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the conjunctions ‘when’, ‘as’, ‘before’, ‘after’, ‘while’, ‘since’, ‘till’, ‘until’, ‘directly’, ‘as soon as’.

When placed in the middle of the main clause, thus splitting it, and acquiring a detached character, an adverbial clause of time, is set off by double commas.

When following the main clause, an adverbial clause of time is usually not set off by any PM, occupying the regular place of an adverbial modifier of time, and being tightly attached to the principal clause.

Like an adverbial modifier, an adverbial clause of time may have a detached character, so it is marked off by a comma, even though it follows the principal clause, which is usually pronounced with a falling tone.

An appositive adverbial clause of time, following an adverbial modifier of time, is marked off by a comma or double commas, to denote its detached, explanatory and additional character.

Adverbial clauses of time introduced by the connective groups ‘hardly — when’, ‘scarcely — when’, ‘no sooner— than’, ‘barely — when’, ‘barely — before’ are never set off by any PM from the principal clauses, being very closely connected with them, the first parts of these groups belonging to the principal clauses.

An adverbial clause of condition preceding the principal clause is usually set off by a comma to denote weak dependence, rising tone, and a pause. In case an adverbial clause of condition follows the main clause, there is normally no PM before the subordinate clause to denote close connection with, and absolute dependence on the principal clause.  Sometimes an adverbial clause of condition has a detached character, showing faint dependence; so there is a comma, even if the subordinate clause follows the main clause, which is usually pronounced with a falling tone.

Adverbial clauses of place introduced by the conjunctions ‘where’, ‘wherever’ are, like adverbial modifiers of place, not marked off by any PM from the principal clause. An adverbial clause of cause (or reason), like an adverbial modifier of cause, is generally not set off by any PM when placed after the principal clause, to indicate absolute dependence on the latter. These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions ‘because’, ‘since’, ‘as’.

An adverbial clause of cause placed at the head of the sentence is normally marked off by a comma to denote weaker dependence on the main clause, rising tone, and a pause. An adverbial clause of cause, like an adverbial modifier of cause, may have a detached character', so it is separated by a comma from the principal clause, which is usually pronounced with a falling tone in such case.

An adverbial clause of purpose, like an adverbial modifier of purpose, is usually not set off by any PM from the main clause to denote its attached character. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunctions ‘that’, ‘lest’, ‘so’, ‘so that’, ‘in order that’. An adverbial clause of comparison introduced by the conjunctions ‘as’ — after the adverbs ‘as’, ‘not so’ in the principal clause —, ‘than’ — after the adverbs ‘more’, ‘less’, ‘better’, ‘worse’, etc. — are usually not set off by any PM to denote their close connection with the principal clause and the adverbs.

Adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the conjunctions ‘as if’, ‘as though’ are usually not set off by any PM from the principal clauses to denote close connection with the verbs they modify.

Adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the conjunctions ‘as if’, ‘as though’, mostly after adverbial modifiers of manner or comparison in the principal clauses,which are usually pronounced with a falling tone, may have an explanatory, detached character-, so they are marked off by a comma; in case of a longer pause, by a dash.Adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the connective adverb groups ‘the more — the more’, ‘the less — the less’, ‘the sooner — the better’, ‘the further — the better’, ‘the harder — the more interesting’, etc., are mostly set off by a comma.

Adverbial clauses of result (or consequence), like adverbial modifiers of result, are not marked off by any PM, being, mostly, closely connected with adverbial modifiers of degree in the principal clause.

Adverbial clauses of result are introduced by the conjunctions ‘that’ — after the adverb of degree ‘so’, or the prepositional phrase ‘to such an extent’ — and ‘so that’ — often after the adverbs of degree ‘very’, ‘extremely’.

Adverbial clauses of concession, no matter what place they may occupy in the sentence, are always set off by a comma from the principal clause, having a detached character.  In case an adverbial clause of concession is introduced asyndetically, by means of inversion, there is a comma between the two clauses, to denote rising tone of the subordinate clause, which usually precedes the main clause, and a pause.An adverbial clause of attending circumstances, like the corresponding adverbial modifier, is marked off bya comma from the principal clause to denote its detached character, falling tone, and a pause. Such clause is introduced by the conjunction ‘while’.

In case of double or several degrees of subordination, the punctuation remains exactly the same as is necessary before each type of subordinate clause.