Phraseology

Phraseology. Types of phraseological units.

Phraseological unit / set expression / idiom – a complex word-equivalent in which the globality of nomination reigns supreme over the formal separability of elements. It is reproduced in speech. – See Idiom proper

Typology of ph.us. (according to the degree of motivation):

• - unities, phraseological (q.v.);
• - combinations, phraseological (q.v.);
• - fusions, phraseological (q.v.).

Phraseology.

Alongside with separate words speakers use larger blocks functioning as whole (consisting › 1 word). In any language there are certain restrictions imposed upon co-occurence of words.

They can be connected with linguistic factors or the ties in the extra-linguistic reality.

3 types of lexical combinability of words:

1).  Free combination 
Grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability.

• Ex.: I’m talking to you. You are writing.

Free combinations permit substitution of any of its elements without semantic change of the other element.

2). Collocations.

• Ex.: to commit a murder
• Bread & butter
• Dark night
• Blue sky
• Bright day

They are the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words. Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.

Very often they are related to the referential & situational meaning of words. 
Sometimes there are collocations, which are removed from the reference to extra-linguistic reality.  
(collocations involving, colour words)

• Ex.: to be green with jealousy
• Red revolution

3).  Idioms

Idioms are also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts.

This criterion is called the degree of semantic isolation. 
In different types of idioms – it is different.

• Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly

This classification of idioms according to their structure:

1. Fixed idioms

• a) fixed regular idioms  
  It’s a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question
• b) fixed irregular (can be varied on the grammatical level)  
  to have a bee in one’s bonnet (She has.., I have...)

2. Variable (varied on the lexical level)

• Ex.: to add fuel to the fire/flame
• to mind one’s own business /to mind one business
• to nap a cat’s nap / to have a short nap (вздремнуть)
• dialectal: BrE: to have a skeleton in the cupboard
• AmE: to have a skeleton on the closet

Semantic classification:

2 criteria:

• The degree of semantic isolation
• The degree of disinformation

1.   Opaque in meaning (трудный для понимания) 
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the whole.

• Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die

It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression

The degree of semantic isolation is the highest. => phraseological fusions

2.    Semi-opaque

one component preserves its direct meaning

• Ex.:  to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность

=> phraseological unities

3.    Transparent 
both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense

• Ex.: to see the light = to understand

=> phraseological combinations 

 

There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying).

• Ex.: Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back

Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:

• · How do you do?
• · Good-bye (God be with you)
• · How about a drink?

Lots of clichés, quotations.

Clichés form a notable part of he public speaking style. They use clichés because of the intellectual laziness or in the hope of appealing to emotions of smb.

A talk based on clichés is easier to produce.

• Ex.: to see the light
• It’s high time to do smth

( these expressions are store in our mind, ready-made )

Quotations:

To support our arguments, to add some prominence

• Ex.: “I have a dream” M.L.King
• “To be or not to be” Shakespeare

They may be clipped or shortened.

• Ex.: To beer or not to beer (creates humorist effect)
• To bomb or not to bomb
• It was the last straw that broke the camels back.

Sources of idioms:

1. from our everyday life

• Ex.: to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth
• to sail under false colour (прятать истинное лицо)
• to loose track of smb (потерять кого-либо из виду, давно не видеть)
• a leopard can(’t) change its spots

2. from the Bible

• Ex.: black sheep, lost sheep (заблудшая овца)
• To cast pearls before swine (метать бисер перед свиньями)

3. World literature

• Ex.: to fight against Windmills
• an ugly duckling (Danish) – гадкий утенок

4. different languages

• Ex.: to lose face (Chinese)
• “The course of true love has never run smooth” Shakespeare “The 12th night”
• “The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia” – “the Times”

5. from history

• Ex.: to cross the Rubicon
• Labours of Hercules
• To bell the cat

Кунин Classification:

1. Одновершинные  (with one peak)

( one peak phraseological units, one form word, one notional )

• Ex.: to leave for good
• By heart
• At bay – быть в отчаянном положении

2. Phrasemes with the structure of subordinate or coordinate word combination.

• Ex.: a bitter pill to swallow
• All the world & his wife

3. Partly predicative

( a word + subordinate clause )

• Ex.: It was the last straw that broke the camels back

4. Verbal with (infinitive, passive)

• Ex.: to eat like a wolf
• The Rubicon is crossed

5. Phrasal units with a simple or complex sentence structure

• Ex.: There is a black sheep in every flock.
• It was the last straw that broke the camel’s back

Koonin: “Structural-semantic classification”.

1. Nominative

• A hard nut to crack

2. Nominative –communicative

• The ice is broken

3. Interjectional & modal

• (Emotions, feelings)
• Oh, my eye! (= Oh, my God!)
• As sure as eggs is eggs (просто, как 2х2)

4. Communicative (proverbs, sayings)

• There is no smoke without fire.

Nominative:

• Substantive: crocodile tears
• Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber
• Adverbial: by & by, to & fro
• Verbal: to live like a lord