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In the process of translation grammatical and lexical phenomena are taken in as inseparably connected. A word keeps its semantic identity standing in different contexts. The context determines a proper meaning of a used word in an every concrete case but all possible meanings of words are present constantly in a translator’s mind.
In order to confront correctly English and Armenian lexical units in translation of a concrete text a translator must know basic types of similar comparisons and which factors should be considered to choose a final variant of translation.
In the process of translation grammatical and lexical phenomena are taken in as inseparably connected. A word keeps its semantic identity standing in different contexts. The context determines a proper meaning of a used word in an every concrete case but all possible meanings of words are present constantly in a translator’s mind.
In order to confront correctly English and Armenian lexical units in translation of a concrete text a translator must know basic types of similar comparisons and which factors should be considered to choose a final variant of translation.
Most of words both in the Armenian and English languages are polysemantic. Different meanings of a word are connected between each other and as a rule combined around common basic datum value. Semantics of a word reveals itself in the context, depends on lexical surroundings of the word. Therefore, for discovering exact meaning a word should be considered not isolated but in connection with other words and sometimes more large context is needed.
The aim of the term-paper
The aim of the term-paper is to analyze the importance of the adequate translation and define lexical difficulties that are faced in translation.
The objectives of the term-paper are:
1. to show in what way translation of the words that have (don’t have) lexical correspondences in the Russian language is realized,
2. to analyze characteristics and methods of translation of English figurative phraseology,
3. to give a notion of lexical transformation and its kinds,
4. to compare
The practical value of the term-paper
To show differences between English Armenian and Russian languages. To use different methods for the same sentence.
The paper consists of
Chapter1 (1.1 Lexical Problems and Methods of Translation, 1.2Translation of the Word that don’t have Direct Lexical Correspondences, 1.3 Translation of Phraseological Units, 1.3.2Methods of Figurative Phraseology Translation).
Chapter2 (2.1 Additions, 2.2 Omissions, 2.3 Substitutes, 2.3.1 Methods of Creating of Contextual Substitutes, 2.3.2 Method of Generalization, 2.3.3 Method of Antonymic Translation, 2.3.4 Method of Compensation, 2.3.5 Method Semantic Development, 2.3.6 Method of Complete Interpretation).
The term-paper is carried out on the basis of S. Maugham’s “The Theatre”
1.1 Lexical Problems & Methods of Translation
Due to the semantic features of language the meanings of words, their usage, ability to combine with other words, associations awakened by them, the place they hold in the lexical system of a language do not concur for the most part. All the same «ideas» expressed by words coincide in most cases, though the means of expression differ.
As it is impossible to embrace all the cases of semantic differences between two languages, we shall restrict this course to the most typical features.
The principal types of lexical correspondences between two languages are as follows:
I. Complete correspondences.
II. Partial correspondences.
III. The absence of correspondences.
First of all a translation of a word starts from
an attempt to discover in the Armenian language the word that is coincident
in the meaning with the given one. There is a good deal of the Armenian
words which have a close meaning to English words. In the theory of
translation that sort of words is named lexical or lexicographic correspondence.
Two basic types of semantic relations between words of the English and Russian languages are discovered:
A meaning of an English word corresponds completely to a meaning of a Russian one. That kind of correspondence implies that in all (or almost all) cases of using of an English word it will be conveyed in translation with this Russian word. Such permanent equivalent correspondences we will name equivalents.
For examples, English words London, cypress, twenty, Monday, March have equivalent correspondences in the Armenian language: Լոնդոն, կիպարիս, տասներկու, երկուշաբթի մարտ .
Terms (not all), proper names, place-names, numerals, names of days of the week and months, etc. are also represented by equivalents in another language. There is not a lot of equivalent correspondences in languages as most of words are polysemantic. As a rule, polysemantic words don’t have one equivalent; an equivalent can have just single meaning of these words. For
example, figure-կազմվածք, թիվ
. Meanings of several Armenian words correspond partially to the meaning of an English word, i.e. this word has several lexical correspondences, similar by meaning. This type of correspondences is named variant correspondence.
A skill of a translator to a great extent consists in the ability to find a number of correspondences to the English word and choose the variant that is more appropriate by the terms of the context. Let’s take, for example, the following sentence from the novel:
He said they could not afford to let sentiment stand in the way of business. (Ch 7: 63).
Նա ասաց, չպետք է թւոյլ տալ , որ զգացմունքը խանգարի գործին (Գլ 7:53):
A dictionary gives 4 meanings of the word sentiment:
The first meaning of the four suits most of all. There are variant correspondences in the first meaning among that a translator has to choose most closely apt one. The translator of the novel chose the word զգացմունք.
Very often a sequence of lexical variant correspondences given in a dictionary doesn’t satisfy a translator. He/she can’t make use of them, for instance, for stylistic reasons. In that case a translator prolongs a sequence of lexical correspondences. A word in particular context can take on special significance that is not constant but arises only in the given context.
However, contextual meanings of words, though they are not constant, are not casual. They are not in dictionaries but there is always bond between a contextual meaning and a basic object-logical one. So a translator can “throw a bridge” from the meaning given in a dictionary to the originated contextual one. For example:
We’ve had a couple of duds. The next play’s bound to be all right and then we shall get back all we’ve lost and a packet into the bargain. (Ch.9:77).
Երկու անգամ ձախողվեցինք հաջորդ պիեսն անպայման հաջողություն կունենա և այն ժամանակ կորցրածը ետ կբերենք ու դեռ մի կլորիկ դրամ էլ մեզ կմնա:
A dictionary gives the following meanings of the word dud:
No one of the indicated in the dictionary meanings of this word suits for given context but it can be guessed by the next sentence. It means failure as between dud and failure the associative consecution can be built. So the word dud has the contextual meaning, the translator gives it with a mark “here”.
1.2 Translation of the Words that don’t have Direct Lexical Correspondences
Many English words don’t have any direct correspondences among Armenian lexical units. They are neologisms, the words which express specific notions and realities, little known names. Practice of translation has some ways of conveying of these words:
1) transliteration;
2) descriptive translation;
3) replication.
When a translator has to convey an English word which doesn’t have any correspondence in the Armenian language he can try to recreate a form of the English word in translation in order to bring a lexical unit into Armenian the language that corresponds to the translated English word.
A foreign form in translation can be conveyed by two ways: transliteration and transcription. Transliteration is based on conveying of graphical image of an English word, i.e. English letters. Transcription is based on phonetic principle, i.e. on conveying of the sounds of an English word by Armenian letters. The last way conveys sounding of an English word more exactly as it proceeds from not English spelling but from its real sounding.
Mrs. De Vries had seen Julia act in Middlepool. She gave parties so that the young actors might get to know managers, and asked them to stay at her grand house near Guildford, where they enjoyed a luxury they had never dreamed of. (Ch. 8:69).
Միսիս դը Վրայսը արդեն տեսել էր Ջուլիայի խաղը: Նա սկսեց հրավերքներ անել , որպեսզի դերասանները ծանոթանան անտրեպրենյորների հետ, նրանց հրավիրում էր Գիլդֆորդի մոտ գտնվող իր հոյակապ առանձնատունը, որտեղ այնպիսի շքեղություն էր, որի մասին նրանք երազել անգամ չէին կարող: (Գլ 8:59)
There is not such a word that couldn’t be translated into another language at least descriptively, in other words, by extended combination of words of given language. Usually, entire explanation of a meaning of a word doesn’t keep within the frameworks of TT(target text), and a translator has to reduce to a minimum a translation-explanation, give only a part of the description or to footnote. Here are the examples from the novel:
Evie was Julia’s dresser and maid. … She was a cockney, … (Ch.10, p.83).
Իվին Ջուլիայի հանդերձարարուհին էր թատրոնում ու աղախինը` տանը:
The English word cockney is conveyed by not only transliteration but descriptively. The translator makes a foot-note: Քոքնի - բնիկ Իստ-Էնդցի (լոնդոնի բանվորական թաղամաս); Քոքնի բառը ունի տարբերակիչ արտասանություն և քերականորեն ճիշտ չէ:
“You can get back with the milk,” he’d said. (Ch.13:111).
Հետ արի առավոտյան , երբ կաթ բերելու լինես:
For English reader this sentence is natural and clear because it is an English tradition to drive milk in mornings but for TR it will be strange without any explanation.
For conveying of the lexica that doesn’t have any correspondences in TL replication is also used. It is creation of a new word, a word-combination or a compound word for notation of a corresponding object on the bases of the elements which exist materially in a language. This word is named calque (backbencher - պառլամենտի շարքային անպաշտոն դեպուտատ, sky-scraper -երկնաքեր, influence - ազդեցություն). Here are the examples from the text:
I might be squint-eyed and hump-backed. (Ch.7:62).
Կարելի է կարծել ,թե շլաչ եմ, կամ կուզս է դուրս եկած:
She felt like a high-born damsel, … (Ch.6: 60).
Ջուլիան նրան այնպես էր պահում, ասես նշանավոր տոհմից սերված մի չնաշխարհիկ կույս լիներ:
Replication of set expressions is widely used (people of good will –բարի կամքի տեր մարդիք, on the brink of war – պատերազմի եզրին):
When Julia and Michael had decided to try their luck in London… (Ch.8:68). –Երբ Ջուլիան և Մայքլը որոշեցին իրենց բախտը փորձել Լոնդոնում… (Գլ 8:59).
They drove the rest of the journey in stormy silence. (Ch.8:71). – Ճանապարհի մնացած մասն անցան սառցային լռության մեջ (Գլ8:61).
They had a small flat at Buckingham Gate… (Ch.7:62). – Նրանք մի փոքրիկ բնակարան ունեին Բուքինգհեմ Գեյթում: (Գլ7:52).
When Michael went away to the war Dolly pressed her to come and live in her house in Montagu Square, … (Ch.8:.69). – Երբ մայքլը մեկնում էր պատերազմ , Դոլլին աղաչում էր Ջուլիային գալ և ապրել Մոնթեգյու – սքվերի վրա գտնվող իր տանը: (Գլ8: 59).
1.3 Translation of Phraseological Units
1.3.1 Characteristics of English Figurative Phraseology
The predominance of importance of the whole over importance of components is a character of phraseological units (further PU), i.e. connected word-combinations. Therefore, a translator has to translate a PU as a single whole. PUs are subdivided into figurative and not figurative. The main task for a translator in translating of not figurative PUs is to keep up the norms of compatibility of words in the Armenian language as quite often influence of English compatibility leads to literalisms (to make a sacrifice – զոհաբերություն, to have a good sleep – լավ քուն ունենալ, to pay attention – ուշադրություն դարձնել).
He took no notice of the flippant rejoinder. (Ch.2:31). – Նա անուշադրության մատնեց նրա հանդուգն պատասխանը:(Գլ2: 21).
Julia spent a happy morning in bed reading the Sunday papers. (Ch.8, p.71).
Ջուլիան ամբողջ առավոտն անցկացրեց անկողնում` կարդալով կիրակնորյա հանդեսները:. (Գլ8: 62).
Cardinal problems in the field of translation of set expressions are connected with translating of figurative phraseology which imparts vivacity, brilliance and pliancy to language. The task for a translator is to convey into the Russian language not only the meaning of a PU but its figurativeness and expressiveness.
Julia was a damned good sort and clever, as clever as a bagful of monkeys; you could talk to her about anything in the world. (Ch.8:75).- Ջուլիան հիանալի կին էր, սրամիտ ու խելացի. Նրա հետ կարելի էր ամեն ինչի մասին զրուցել:(Գլ8: 65).
As a rule, an English PU has a lot of variant correspondences in the Armenian language and every time a translator has to make a choice.
She laid it on with a trowel. (Ch.8, p.75). (Lay it on with a trowel –ինչ որ բան չափազանց կոպիտ անել).
Նա այլևս չէր վախենում չափն անցկացնել. (Գլ 8:65).
1.3.2 Methods of Figurative Phraseology Translation
The best way of translating of a figurative PU is using of correspondences. These correspondences can be equivalent and variant.
Phraseological equivalent is such a figurative PU in TL which entirely corresponds to one in SL by meaning and stylistic and which is based on the same image. To this group belong international expressions. They are in most of Europe languages and have common origin. Usually, they bear biblical-mythological or literary character (sword of Damocles –Դամոկլյան սուր to cross the Rubicon – անցնել ռուբիկոնը, to shed crocodile tears –կոկորդիլեսի արցունքներ թափել).
I believe you’re prouder of your family than of looking like a Greek god. (Ch.3:36).
Ինձ թվում է դու ավելի շատ հպարտանում ես քո ընտանիքով, քան նրանով, որհունական Աստծւ պես գեղեցիկ ես: (Գլ 3:27).
Then, shark naked, she skipped on to the bed, stood up on it for a moment, like Venus rising from the waves, … (Ch.11:100).
Հետո ամբողջովին մերկ նետվեց մահճակալին, մի պահ կանգնեց հասակով մեկ, ալիքների միջից ելնող Վեներայի նման….(Գլ11:91).
She was as strong as a horse and never tired… (Ch.11.89)
Նա ձիու պես ուժեղ էր ու երբեք չէր հոգնում: (Գլ11:80).
“Poor lamb, he must be as poor as a church mouse.” (Ch.11:97).
Խեղճ գառնուկ , նա, հավանաբար, եկեղեցու մկան պես աղքատ է: (Գլ11:87).
There are two kinds of equivalents: absolute and relative. Absolute equivalents of set expressions coincide with an original in every respect: grammatically, lexically and stylistically (to cast a glance –հայացք գցել, the bitter truth -դառը ճշմարտություն, to play with fire –կրակի հետ խաղալ, to read between lines –հասկանալ տողատակը).
The strange thing was that when she looked into her heart… (Ch.18:170).
Եվ ահա թե ինչն էր տարօրինակը. Երբ Ջուլիան նայեց իր սրտի խորքը…. (Գլ18:158).
…she realized that it would be a bitter blow to his pride… (Ch.8:.75)
…նա հասկանում էր, որ Մայքլի հպարտությանը ծանր հարված կլինի… (Գլ8:65).
Relative equivalents of set expressions have grammatical or lexical differences from an original though they entirely coincide by meaning and stylistic (to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs –սպանել սագ, որը դնում ոսկե ձու).
Of course some of those Middlepool manufacturers were rolling in money,… (Ch.3:42). - Միդլփուլի ֆաբրիկանտները լողում են հարստության մեջ….(Գլ3: 33).
…that she was head over ears in love with him. (Ch.4, p.40)
…որ մինչև ականջների ծայրը սիրահարված է Մայքլին: (Գլ4:36).
He hankered for compliments…They were food and drink to him. (Ch.9:80).
Նա փափագում էր հաճոյախոսություններ լսել… Դրանք նրա համար հաց ու ջուր էին դարձել: (Գլ9:71).
There are a few figurative PUs in the English and Russian languages which coincide with both meaning and figurativeness. More often a translator has to use a Russian PU that has a similar meaning but based on another image (to work one’s fingers to the boneաշխատել առանց հոգնելու, to hit the bird in the eyes –հասնել նպատակին, on foot’s horse-ոտքով).
…he looked every inch a soldier. (Ch.7:64)
Մայքլը մինչև ուղն ու ծուծը զինվորականի տպավորություն էր թողնում:(Գլ7:55).
You can twist her round your little finger. (Ch.8:70)
Դու կարող ես նրան մատներիդ վրա խաղացնել: (Գլ8:60)
Gosh, I’m going down like a barrel of oysters. (Ch.4:46)
Գրողը տանի ամեն ինչ հալած յուղի պես է գնում:(Գլ4:36).
It was the only chink in his armour. (Ch.9, p.82).
Դա նրա աքիլեսյան գարշապարն է:. (Գլ9:71).
To keep figurativeness of an original in translation of a PU that has neither equivalent nor analogue in the Russian language sometimes a translator uses replication or literal transmission of the image which is in English PU. It is possible if the received expression is taken in by TR easily and naturally, in compliance with norms of the Russian language (liars must have good memories – ստախոս լավ հիշողության կարիք ունի, love me, love my dog –սիրիր ինձ, սիրիր և իմ շանը).
Men were creatures of habit; that gave women such a hold on them. (Ch.16:152)
Տղամարդիք իրենց սովորությունների գերին են, դա կանանց օգնում է բռում պահել նրանց: (Գլ16:141).
Plain living and high thinking, Miss Phillips. (Ch.10:87)
Համեստ ապրելակերպ ու վեհ իդեաներ,- Միսս Ֆիլիպս: (Գլ10:74)
If an English PU has neither equivalent nor analogue in the Armenian language and literal translation could lead to obscure literalism a translator has to refuse to convey figurativeness and use descriptive translation, i.e. to explain the meaning of a PU by free state words (a skeleton in the cupboard (closet) –ընտանեկան գաղտնիք, տհաճություն).