General problems of lexicology. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics

drincan-verb                                                                       drink(verb,noun)

drinca, drinc-noun                                                                                  

slepan-verb                                                                         sleep(verb,noun)

slep-noun                                                                                   

 

More rarely it was the prefix that became dropped in Modern English.

ğemund – mind(verb, noun)

A certain homonymy in the borrowing from French of numerous pairs of words of the same route, belonging in French to different parts of speech, resulted in the appearance of conversives in Modern English. Such words used the existing pattern of the loss of affixes and became phonetically identical:

Old French                               Modern English

eschequer(v)                            check(v/n)

eschec(n)

crier(v)                                    cry(v/n)

cri(n)

 

                          Conversive processes in Modern English

Scientific research suggests that conversion is regular or patterned homonymy. Being such it has a number of characteristic features, i.e. though the conversion of suffixed and prefixed words is possible and exists in Modern English, it’s still rather uncommon.

commission –  v/n

This seems natural, because a word, which can be divided into morphemes, is already a member of certain structural correlations. Thus, we can hardly form a verb from the noun arrival, because there exists a verb of the same root – to arrive.

It should be remembered, that conversion is a combined morphological and syntactical way of word-building.

e.g. If one struck lucky, one had a good buy.

“buy”  – noun, because it occupies the position of a noun, is preceded by an indefinite article and is modified by an adj.

However, it’s hardly possible to tell the part of speech if we observe an isolated form, even if this form has an evident suffix with it.

e.g. buys – v/n

 

                          Semantic relationships in conversion

Alongside with conversion, when the latter takes place, a number of changes occur to the word in its syntactic functions, paradigm, distribution and meaning. It may even at times seem that the semantic relationships between the two identical forms are quite chaotic.

e.g. to dust – to remove the dust/to cover with smth dustlike (to dust a cake with sugar-powder)

A closer investigation shows rather patterned relationships, i.e. the lexical meaning of the verb may point out the instrument, the agent, the place, the cause, the result and the time of the action.

Examples of instrumental meaning of verbs:

to eye – to watch carefully with the eyes

to finger –  to touch smth with fingers

to elbow –  to push one’s way with elbows

to knife, to pump, to sandpaper (обрабатывать наждачной бумагой), to saw

All these verbs have a common element of meaning – to work with some definite articles, as with tools.

e.g. agent of action

 

to crowd –  толпиться

to herd –  сбиваться в стаю

Metaphorical agential verbs based on the names of animals:

to ape – to imitate smb in a foolish ape-like way

to wolf(down) –  to eat hungrily like a wolf

Locative meaning can be traced in the verbs, denoting places:

to bag – to put smth into the bag

to corner –  to set smb in a difficult position

to floor –  to bring smb on the floor

Verbs with adjectival stems:

to blind, to calm, to idle, to lame

When used intransitively, these verbs mean to become blind, calm, idle, lame, etc.

If used as transitive verbs, they denote to make smb blind, etc.

Diverbal nouns may show the process:

hiss-шипение

hunt-охота

   the result:

burn-ожог

cut-порез

  the place:

drive-дорожка для проезда

a stand-место  для стоянки

 

All these are connected with the verbs by the several meaning and naming of the appropriate action.

 

Substantivation 

It has always been a question whether words with adjectival stems put a paradigm of a noun can also be referred to the cases of conversion (a private, a captive, a grown-up, a male, a neutral, a native, a radical, an intellectual, a mechanic, a red, etc.) At the same time it should be realized that there is a great difference between the words, formed by pure conversion and substantivated adjectives, whereas conversives make regular pairs of homonyms with the words, from which they are derived, no such regular pattern of homonymy is possible in case of substantivation.

All cases of substantivation in English can show various degrees of this word-forming process:

1. complete substantivation- “a private” – here the meaning of the substantivated form changes crutially.
2. partial substantivation-in the words, denoting groups of people: the blind, the dead, the English, the poor, etc.

Such cases are considered partially substantivated, because they never change.

And thus show complete resemblance with the appropriate adjectives. They are also used only with definite articles. There is a strong opinion among linguists, that the so-called “partially substantivated adjectives” are nothing more than cliptisized phrases, originally consisting of an adjective (Participle II) + a noun, out of which combination excluded was the right or the second element.

 

Set expressions in modern English

A set expression, being the object of study, is a group of words, not less than two in number (but typically more), characterized by a single, indivisible, specialized meaning, thus each set expression can be viewed as a separate unit and can be equalized to a separate word.

The number of set expressions in any modern language with a developed history is great, and the nature of such units is immensely versatile. It is a common mistake to think, that a set expression characterizes by its presence colloquial speech and always carries in its semantic structure an element of connotation, like emotionality, evaluation, intensity, etc. – this is a mistake. Set expressions may be stylistically neutral, they may be terms, though many of them are highly colloquial by nature. Typical examples in English are in front of, not for the world, a red letter day, to sleep like a log, it goes without saying, etc.

The starting problem with set expressions is that of naming them, and the options here are phraseology, phraseological units and idioms. However, the terms phraseology and phraseological unit are recognized in Russian linguistics. Besides, the term phraseology also denotes the branch of linguistics that studies the word groups of the said kind.

We should also bear in mind that the phraseological section of the national vocabularly was best of all studied in Russian linguistics, while such units are still very poorly and non-systematically learnt in modern western linguistics. The linguists of the western countries mostly apply the tern idioms to both groups of words and single word units. This is done on the ground of the figurative meaning, manifested in this or that unit.

In reality all these units are highly heterogeneous (variative). Here we may find:

1. expressive colloquialisms (to know the ropes (знать все ходы/выходы));
2. demotivated units (tit for tat (зуб за зуб));
3. terminology (direct object, blank verse, Adam’s apple);
4. polytical cliché (a summit meeting, Cold War);
5. emotionally neutral combinations (to give up, a lot of, a great deal of, to be looking forward to, as well as).

 

Set expressions should not be confused with free phrases and semi-fixed combinations.

A free phrase easily permits substitution of any of its elements without the resuling semantic change in the remaining elements, e.g. to go early can be changed to to go late, and the meaning of go doesn’t change, as well as we can change it to to start early, etc.

In semi-fixed combinations substitutes also exist, but their boundaries are fixed by the semantic properties of words, which may be used for substitution. For example, there exists a pattern, consisting of the word to go + preposition + noun without an article, e.g. to go to school. The said pattern, however, is only used with the nouns of place, e.g. to go to hospital, to go to court, to go to lecture, to go to market, etc.

In this respect, if any substitution of elements within a phrase is restricted to only a few synonyms for one element, which is normally not basic, or such substitution is impossible, that is if the elements of the phrase are always the same, that is are used in the same grammar form with the same word order, making a fixed context, then the group is a set expression.

The naming set expression, unlike phraseological unit or phraseological entity or idiom, is most neutral, hence most acceptable. This way we do not change anything in such structures as first night, to gild the pill (подсластить горькую пилюлю), on the other hand, calf love (детская любовь, юношеское увлечение), to and fro.

Classification of set expressions

Many various lines of approach have been used to classify these units. However, the boundaries of the whole group, its classification and place in the national vocabularly are controversial issues in present-day linguistics. Among English scholars named can be W. Bowl, who gave a more or less detailed grouping of the English set expressions. However, as this groups of units are similar in different languages, it would be right for us to observe as the basic example those classifications given to the idioms of other languages. Such classifications may naturally be applied to the scope of english idioms.

What concerns the Russian material, those were Fortunatov, Shakhmatov and later Larin and Vinogradov, who all tried to classify the Russian phraseology. V.V. Vinogradov’s classification can be applied to the English examples and illustrated by them:

1. Phraseological fusions (фразеологические сращения), which show the highest degree of blending between two or more completely non-motivated elements. Example: tongue in cheek (to speak with hidden irony).
2. Phraseological unities (фразеологические единства), which consist of non-motivated elements again, however allowing a possibility of synonymic substitution. For example: to stick to one’s guns (стоять на своем), which can be to stand to one’s guns.
3. Phraseological combinations (сочетания), which consist of motivated components, one used in its direct meaning, others in figurative. E.g. to meet the demands/requirements, to enter the details.

 

There also exists a classification of idioms in the German language, where only unities and combinations are distinguished, and fusions are included into unities, because the criterion of motivation/demotivation may seem different to different speakers, thus being a subjective element of meaning.

A well-known classification of English idioms from different viewpoints was given by the Russian linguist Alexander Kunin, and the basis for the grouping being the grammatical or syntactical function of the unit. This means that every set expression can be equal or rather equalized to a separate word, and each separate word belongs to this or that part of speech. Hencewhere:

1) Nominal phrases:

a) noun + noun – maiden name (девичья фамилия);

b) noun’s + noun – cat’s paw (рябь на воде);

c) nouns’ + noun – ladies’ man;

d) noun + preposition + noun – a skeleton in the cupboard;

e) noun + adjective – knight errant (странствующий рыцарь);

f) noun + and + noun – lord and master (husband).

2) Verbal phrases:

a) verb + noun – to take advantage;

b) verb + and + verb – to pick and choose;

c) verb + one’s + noun + preposition – to snap one’s fingers at smb (to neglect smb);

d) verb + one + noun – to give one the sack/bird (to fire smb);

e) verb + subordinate clause – to see how the land lies

3) Adjectival phrases:

a) adjective + and + adjective – high and mighty;

b) as + adj + as + noun – as mad as a hatter.

4) Adverbial phrases:

a) noun + noun – tooth and nail (изо всех сил);

b) preposition + noun – of course, by heart;

c) preposition + noun + or + preposition + noun – by hook or by crook (всеми способами);

d) conjunction + clause – before one can say Jack Robinson.

5) Prepositional phrases: preposition + noun + preposition – on the ground of, in case of, in the event of.

6) Interjectional phrases: God bless me, bless my soul, holy cow.

 

The origin of set expressions in modern English

 

The sources of modern English phraseology are extremely versatile, which means that the language is characterized by a strong tendency of forming newer and newer collocations alongside with the figuralization of the meanings of the meanings, of their lexical elements. In accordance with their etymology, all English set expressions can be subdivided into two large groups:

1. those of the English origin (native English set expressions);
2. borrowings, which are further subdivided into:
1. interlingual,
2. introlingual.

 

A special group comprises those units, which may be named foreign phraseological insertions. As a result a more detailed classification of idioms may consist of 4 principal groups:

1) idioms of the English origin:

a. idioms reflecting English customs (baker’s dozen – first appeared in the language of bakers because according to the old English tradition bread-sellers received from bakers 13 loafs instead of 12, the 13^th one being their profit, which wasn’t considered honest),

b. idioms, associated with the peculiarities of English life (bluestocking – a Blue Stocking Meeting was a literary society of the 18^th century London because the scientist Benjamin Spellingflith always appeared in it in blue stockings),

c. idioms, where personal names are used (a good jack makes a good jill («у хорошего мужа и жена хороша»),

d. idioms, associated with beliefs and prejudices (a black sheep – in old times a black sheep in a herd was believed to be marked by devil),

e. idioms, associated with astrology (to curse one’s stars, to be born under a bad star, etc.),

f. idioms, associated with the real historical events (as well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb («если суждено быть повешенным за овцу, почему бы не украсть ягненка») – according to an old English law the theft of a sheep was punished by hanging),

g. idioms of terminological origin (to cut the painter («обрубить канат») – originates from the marine terminology; to hit below the belt – from the boxer’s language),

h. Shakespeare’s idioms (many modern English idioms from the writings of the past, but their majority are linked with the name of the greatest English playwright: a fool’s paradise, the green-eyed monster (jealousy), to one’s heart content);

2) interlingual borrowings:

a. Biblical loans (sow the wind and reap the whirlwind, a millstone about somebody’s neck, a wolf in sheep’s clothes and many more),

b. foreign loans, coming from Antique mythology (the apple of discord, a labour of Sisyphus, the thread of Ariadne),

c. French borrowings (after us the deluge, appetite comes with the eating, the fair sex, the game is not worth the candle),

d. German borrowings (blood and iron, speech is silvern, silence is golden, storm and stress),

e. Spanish borrowings (the fifth column, to tilt at windmills),

f. Russian borrowings (the sick man of Europe – a European country in a financial crisis);

(Apart from the above the English phraseology contains some borrowings from Danish, Dutch, Italian, Chinese and Arabic.)

3) introlingual borrowings (mainly from the American English: time is money (comes from “Advice to the young tradesman” by B. Franklin), to sell like hot cakes, to sit on the fence, to spill the beans, to look (feel) like a million dollars);

4) foreign insertions (mainly Latin and French phrases, which are never translated or modified: terra incognita, ad hoc, status quo, curriculum vitae (c.v.), enfant terrible).

 

The principal way of borrowing idioms is translation or calking, whose cases may be:

1. direct translation (make believe, vicious circle from French, divide and rule from Latin),
2. semi-translation (on the qui vive)
3. idioms, imitating the foreign semantic structure (by all that’s blue («черт возьми»), May Day (from French m’aider -- “help me”)

 

English proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations*, clichés

*familiar quotations крылатые выражения

 

The status of the utterances named in the title of the lecture with respect to set expressions is a controversial issue. However, the association between them and as an example set expressions can be traced in the fact that many proverbs in the course of their long use in speech are split into smaller parts and turn into sayings. If this process continues, a saying may result in an idiom due to its further curtailment. The common feature uniting the above said utterances and set expressions is 1) that these are not isolated words but word combinations and 2) that all of them employ figurative meanings of some of their parts or of themselves as a whole.

 

A proverb is traditionally defined as a short familiar statement expressing a popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and typically imaginary way. Many proverbs from the formal standpoint are rhythmically organized, which facilitates their memorization and spontaneous use in speech. Proverbs have much in common with set expressions, e.g. their lexical components are constant, their structure is unchangeable, and the meaning of the components – figurative. They are introduced into speech ready-made and show evident resistance towards modification. Like set expressions, proverbs may be associated through their origin with some definite source or author, which are usually forgotten by the speaking community.

Due to all these common features some scholars, especially in the west, do not separate these types of phrases. Still others believe that proverbs can be hardly included into the lexical system, because they stand too far from the central lexical unit, which is the word, and are independent units of communication. The further classification of such units would embrace structures like riddles, children’s counting rhymes, nursery rhymes, etc., which are already texts. But this viewpoint can hardly be approved.

Proverbs often serve as the basis for the formation of idioms, e.g. the last straw breaks the camel’s back (proverb) < the last straw (idiom); a drowning man will clutch at a straw (proverb) < to clutch at a straw (idiom). Both set expressions and proverbs can sometimes be split and changed for stylistic purposes.

 

all is not gold that glitters (proverb) + the Golden Age (idiom) = it will be the age perhaps not of not but at least of glitter

 

Aldous Huxley used the set expressions to marry into money in the characteristics of a woman who was described as the one who married herself into conversation, since she was unusually talkative and married someone who listened to her.

 

Lexicology does not show the great interested in proverbs, as the latter are mainly studied by folklorists. Among the most distinctive features of proverbs is that they are always grammatically complete sentences, e.g. the proof of the pudding is in the eating. However, ellipsis may often occur with the proverbs omitted may be even some principles members of the sentence, like the predicate, e.g. one law for the rich and another for the poor. As proverbs are sentence, their classification is also normally based on the classification of sentences, e.g.:

1. affirmative sentences, simple: Homer sometimes nods; pride goes before a fall;
2. negative sentences, simple: you can’t eat your cake and have it;
3. complex sentences: he that dies, pays all debts; he laughs best who laughs last;
4. imperative sentences
1. with affirmation: let sleeping dogs lie;
2. with negation: don’t count your chickens before they are hatched;
3. complete sentences: do in Rome as the Romans do;
5. interrogative sentences: can the leopard changes his spots?

Such questions are naturally rhetorical and do not need any answer.

 

 

Sayings, in contrast to proverbs, usually do not contain any moral lesson and are colloquial in their essence, but sayings usually express positive or negative evaluation, e.g. more power to your elbow, does your mother know you’re out?. As sayings may also be compared to sentences, although ellipticized, their classification may basically be the same as that of proverbs. Both proverbs and sayings employ in their structure a number of expressive means like repetition (forewarned is forearmed), juxtaposition, euphony (rhyme, alliteration, etc.: birds of a feather flock together).

 

 

Familiar quotations, different from proverbs and sayings by their origin and mainly coming from literature, may gradually become part of the language. The speaking community usually tends to forget their sources and give their alternated variants. This process is named anonymisation of quotations. Among such utterances we may find a lot of bibleisms, Shakespeare’s phrases (uneasy lies the head that wears the crown, give every man thy ear but few thy voice).

 

 

The term cliché comes from the French term of printing. Such phrases are so frequently used that it resulted in the loss of their original expressive power, so that now they are recommended for avoidance. The acid test, the arms of Morpheus, to break the ice, the irony of fate, a sigh of relief, swan song, to sleep the sleep of the just, to stand shoulder to shoulder, to walk arm in arm, etc.